  
  [1X13 [33X[0;0YTypes of Objects[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YEvery  [5XGAP[105X object has a [13Xtype[113X. The type of an object is the information which
  is  used  to decide whether an operation is admissible or possible with that
  object  as  an  argument,  and  if  so,  how  it  is  to  be  performed (see
  Chapter [14X78[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  example,  the types determine whether two objects can be multiplied and
  what  function is called to compute the product. Analogously, the type of an
  object determines whether and how the size of the object can be computed. It
  is  sometimes  useful  in discussing the type system, to identify types with
  the  set  of  objects  that  have  this type. Partial types can then also be
  regarded as sets, such that any type is the intersection of its parts.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  type  of an object consists of two main parts, which describe different
  aspects of the object.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  [13Xfamily[113X  determines  the  relation  of  the object to other objects. For
  example,  all  permutations  form  a  family. Another family consists of all
  collections  of  permutations,  this  family contains the set of permutation
  groups  as  a subset. A third family consists of all rational functions with
  coefficients in a certain family.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  other  part  of a type is a collection of [13Xfilters[113X (actually stored as a
  bit-list  indicating,  from  the complete set of possible filters, which are
  included  in this particular type). These filters are all treated equally by
  the  method  selection,  but,  from the viewpoint of their creation and use,
  they  can  be  divided  (with a small number of unimportant exceptions) into
  categories, representations, attribute testers and properties. Each of these
  is described in more detail below.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThis  chapter does not describe how types and their constituent parts can be
  created. Information about this topic can be found in Chapter [14X79[114X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[13XNote:[113X  Detailed understanding of the type system is not required to use [5XGAP[105X.
  It  can  be  helpful,  however,  to  understand  how things work and why [5XGAP[105X
  behaves the way it does.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA discussion of the type system can be found in [BL98].[133X
  
  
  [1X13.1 [33X[0;0YFamilies[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe family of an object determines its relationship to other objects.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YMore  precisely,  the families form a partition of all [5XGAP[105X objects such that
  the  following  two  conditions hold: objects that are equal w.r.t. [10X=[110X lie in
  the  same  family; and the family of the result of an operation depends only
  on the families of its operands.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe first condition means that a family can be regarded as a set of elements
  instead of a set of objects. Note that this does not hold for categories and
  representations  (see  below),  two objects that are equal w.r.t. [10X=[110X need not
  lie  in  the  same  categories  and representations. For example, a sparsely
  represented  matrix can be equal to a densely represented matrix. Similarly,
  each  domain  is  equal  w.r.t.  [10X=[110X to the sorted list of its elements, but a
  domain is not a list, and a list is not a domain.[133X
  
  [1X13.1-1 FamilyObj[101X
  
  [29X[2XFamilyObj[102X( [3Xobj[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Yreturns the family of the object [3Xobj[103X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe   family  of  the  object  [3Xobj[103X  is  itself  an  object,  its  family  is
  [10XFamilyOfFamilies[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIt  should  be emphasized that families may be created when they are needed.
  For example, the family of elements of a finitely presented group is created
  only  after  the  presentation  has  been constructed. Thus families are the
  dynamic  part  of the type system, that is, the part that is not fixed after
  the initialisation of [5XGAP[105X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFamilies  can  be  parametrized.  For example, the elements of each finitely
  presented  group form a family of their own. Here the family of elements and
  the  finitely  presented  group  coincide  when  viewed  as  sets. Note that
  elements  in  different finitely presented groups lie in different families.
  This  distinction  allows  [5XGAP[105X  to  forbid  multiplications  of  elements in
  different finitely presented groups.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAs  a  special  case,  families  can  be  parametrized by other families. An
  important  example  is the family of [13Xcollections[113X that can be formed for each
  family.  A collection consists of objects that lie in the same family, it is
  either a nonempty dense list of objects from the same family or a domain.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  that  every  domain  is  a  collection, that is, it is not possible to
  construct  domains  whose elements lie in different families. For example, a
  polynomial  ring over the rationals cannot contain the integer [10X0[110X because the
  family  that  contains the integers does not contain polynomials. So one has
  to distinguish the integer zero from each zero polynomial.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YLet  us  look  at this example from a different viewpoint. A polynomial ring
  and  its coefficients ring lie in different families, hence the coefficients
  ring cannot be embedded [21Xnaturally[121X into the polynomial ring in the sense that
  it  is a subset. But it is possible to allow, e.g., the multiplication of an
  integer  and  a  polynomial  over  the  integers.  The  relation between the
  arguments,  namely that one is a coefficient and the other a polynomial, can
  be  detected from the relation of their families. Moreover, this analysis is
  easier  than  in  a  situation  where  the rationals would lie in one family
  together  with all polynomials over the rationals, because then the relation
  of families would not distinguish the multiplication of two polynomials, the
  multiplication  of two coefficients, and the multiplication of a coefficient
  with a polynomial. So the wish to describe relations between elements can be
  taken as a motivation for the introduction of families.[133X
  
  
  [1X13.2 [33X[0;0YFilters[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YA  [13Xfilter[113X is a special unary [5XGAP[105X function that returns either [9Xtrue[109X or [9Xfalse[109X,
  depending  on  whether  or  not  the argument lies in the set defined by the
  filter. Filters are used to express different aspects of information about a
  [5XGAP[105X  object,  which  are  described below (see [14X13.3[114X, [14X13.4[114X, [14X13.5[114X, [14X13.6[114X, [14X13.7[114X,
  [14X13.8[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YPresently  any  filter in [5XGAP[105X is implemented as a function which corresponds
  to  a  set  of positions in the bitlist which forms part of the type of each
  [5XGAP[105X  object,  and returns [9Xtrue[109X if and only if the bitlist of the type of the
  argument has the value [9Xtrue[109X at all of these positions.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe intersection (or meet) of two filters [3Xfilt1[103X, [3Xfilt2[103X is again a filter, it
  can be formed as[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[3Xfilt1[103X [9Xand[109X [3Xfilt2[103X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YSee [14X20.4[114X for more details.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  example,  [10XIsList  and  IsEmpty[110X  is  a  filter  that returns [9Xtrue[109X if its
  argument  is an empty list, and [9Xfalse[109X otherwise. The filter [2XIsGroup[102X ([14X39.2-7[114X)
  is  defined as the intersection of the category [2XIsMagmaWithInverses[102X ([14X35.1-4[114X)
  and the property [2XIsAssociative[102X ([14X35.4-7[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA  filter  that  is not the meet of other filters is called a [13Xsimple filter[113X.
  For  example,  each  attribute  tester  (see [14X13.6[114X)  is a simple filter. Each
  simple  filter  corresponds  to  a position in the bitlist currently used as
  part of the data structure representing a type.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YEvery  filter  has  a [13Xrank[113X, which is used to define a ranking of the methods
  installed  for  an  operation, see Section [14X78.2[114X. The rank of a filter can be
  accessed with [2XRankFilter[102X ([14X13.2-1[114X).[133X
  
  [1X13.2-1 RankFilter[101X
  
  [29X[2XRankFilter[102X( [3Xfilt[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  simple  filters,  an  [13Xincremental  rank[113X  is  defined when the filter is
  created,  see  the sections about the creation of filters: [14X79.1[114X, [14X79.2[114X, [14X79.3[114X,
  [14X79.4[114X.  For  an  arbitrary  filter,  its  rank  is  given  by  the sum of the
  incremental ranks of the [13Xinvolved[113X simple filters; in addition to the implied
  filters,  these  are  also the required filters of attributes (again see the
  sections  about the creation of filters). In other words, for the purpose of
  computing  the rank and [13Xonly[113X for this purpose, attribute testers are treated
  as if they would imply the requirements of their attributes.[133X
  
  [1X13.2-2 NamesFilter[101X
  
  [29X[2XNamesFilter[102X( [3Xfilt[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Y[2XNamesFilter[102X  returns  a  list  of names of the [13Ximplied[113X simple filters of the
  filter  [3Xfilt[103X,  these are all those simple filters [10Ximp[110X such that every object
  in   [3Xfilt[103X   also   lies  in  [10Ximp[110X.  For  implications  between  filters,  see
  [2XShowImpliedFilters[102X ([14X13.2-3[114X) as well as sections [14X78.7[114X, [14X79.1[114X, [14X79.2[114X, [14X79.3[114X.[133X
  
  [1X13.2-3 ShowImpliedFilters[101X
  
  [29X[2XShowImpliedFilters[102X( [3Xfilter[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0YDisplays  information  about the filters that may be implied by [3Xfilter[103X. They
  are given by their names. [10XShowImpliedFilters[110X first displays the names of all
  filters  that  are  unconditionally  implied  by  [3Xfilter[103X.  It  then displays
  implications that require further filters to be present (indicating by [10X+[110X the
  required   further   filters).   The   function  displays  only  first-level
  implications, implications that follow in turn are not displayed (though [5XGAP[105X
  will do these).[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XShowImpliedFilters(IsMatrix);[127X[104X
    [4X[28XImplies:[128X[104X
    [4X[28X   IsGeneralizedRowVector[128X[104X
    [4X[28X   IsNearAdditiveElementWithInverse[128X[104X
    [4X[28X   IsAdditiveElement[128X[104X
    [4X[28X   IsMultiplicativeElement[128X[104X
    [4X[28X[128X[104X
    [4X[28X[128X[104X
    [4X[28XMay imply with:[128X[104X
    [4X[28X+IsGF2MatrixRep[128X[104X
    [4X[28X   IsOrdinaryMatrix[128X[104X
    [4X[28X[128X[104X
    [4X[28X+CategoryCollections(CategoryCollections(IsAdditivelyCommutativeElement))[128X[104X
    [4X[28X   IsAdditivelyCommutativeElement[128X[104X
    [4X[28X[128X[104X
    [4X[28X+IsInternalRep[128X[104X
    [4X[28X   IsOrdinaryMatrix[128X[104X
    [4X[28X[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  
  [1X13.3 [33X[0;0YCategories[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  [13Xcategories[113X  of  an  object  are  filters (see [14X13.2[114X) that determine what
  operations  an object admits. For example, all integers form a category, all
  rationals  form  a  category, and all rational functions form a category. An
  object  which  claims  to  lie  in  a  certain  category  is  accepting  the
  requirement  that it should have methods for certain operations (and perhaps
  that  their behaviour should satisfy certain axioms). For example, an object
  lying  in  the  category  [2XIsList[102X  ([14X21.1-1[114X)  must  have  methods  for  [2XLength[102X
  ([14X21.17-5[114X),  [2XIsBound\[\][102X  ([14X21.2-1[114X) and the list element access operation [2X\[\][102X
  ([14X21.2-1[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAn  object  can lie in several categories. For example, a row vector lies in
  the  categories  [2XIsList[102X  ([14X21.1-1[114X) and [2XIsVector[102X ([14X31.14-14[114X); each list lies in
  the  category  [2XIsCopyable[102X  ([14X12.6-1[114X),  and  depending on whether or not it is
  mutable, it may lie in the category [2XIsMutable[102X ([14X12.6-2[114X). Every domain lies in
  the category [2XIsDomain[102X ([14X31.9-1[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YOf  course some categories of a mutable object may change when the object is
  changed.  For  example,  after  assigning  values  to positions of a mutable
  non-dense  list,  this  list  may  become  part  of the category [2XIsDenseList[102X
  ([14X21.1-2[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YHowever,  if an object is immutable then the set of categories it lies in is
  fixed.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAll  categories  in  the  library  are  created  during  initialization,  in
  particular they are not created dynamically at runtime.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  following  list gives an overview of important categories of arithmetic
  objects.  Indented  categories  are to be understood as subcategories of the
  non indented category listed above it.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[28X    IsObject[128X[104X
    [4X[28X        IsExtLElement[128X[104X
    [4X[28X        IsExtRElement[128X[104X
    [4X[28X            IsMultiplicativeElement[128X[104X
    [4X[28X                IsMultiplicativeElementWithOne[128X[104X
    [4X[28X                    IsMultiplicativeElementWithInverse[128X[104X
    [4X[28X        IsExtAElement[128X[104X
    [4X[28X            IsAdditiveElement[128X[104X
    [4X[28X                IsAdditiveElementWithZero[128X[104X
    [4X[28X                    IsAdditiveElementWithInverse[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YEvery object lies in the category [2XIsObject[102X ([14X12.1-1[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  categories  [2XIsExtLElement[102X ([14X31.14-8[114X) and [2XIsExtRElement[102X ([14X31.14-9[114X) contain
  objects  that  can  be multiplied with other objects via [10X*[110X from the left and
  from the right, respectively. These categories are required for the operands
  of the operation [10X*[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe category [2XIsMultiplicativeElement[102X ([14X31.14-10[114X) contains objects that can be
  multiplied  from  the  left  and  from  the right with objects from the same
  family.  [2XIsMultiplicativeElementWithOne[102X  ([14X31.14-11[114X) contains objects [10Xobj[110X for
  which  a multiplicatively neutral element can be obtained by taking the [22X0[122X-th
  power  [10Xobj^0[110X. [2XIsMultiplicativeElementWithInverse[102X ([14X31.14-13[114X) contains objects
  [10Xobj[110X for which a multiplicative inverse can be obtained by forming [10Xobj^-1[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YLikewise,   the   categories   [2XIsExtAElement[102X   ([14X31.14-1[114X),  [2XIsAdditiveElement[102X
  ([14X31.14-3[114X),          [2XIsAdditiveElementWithZero[102X          ([14X31.14-5[114X)         and
  [2XIsAdditiveElementWithInverse[102X ([14X31.14-7[114X) contain objects that can be added via
  [10X+[110X to other objects, objects that can be added to objects of the same family,
  objects  for  which  an  additively  neutral  element  can  be  obtained  by
  multiplication  with  zero, and objects for which an additive inverse can be
  obtained by multiplication with [10X-1[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YSo  a  vector  lies  in [2XIsExtLElement[102X ([14X31.14-8[114X), [2XIsExtRElement[102X ([14X31.14-9[114X) and
  [2XIsAdditiveElementWithInverse[102X ([14X31.14-7[114X). A ring element must additionally lie
  in [2XIsMultiplicativeElement[102X ([14X31.14-10[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAs  stated  above  it is not guaranteed by the categories of objects whether
  the  result  of an operation with these objects as arguments is defined. For
  example,    the   category   [2XIsMatrix[102X   ([14X24.2-1[114X)   is   a   subcategory   of
  [2XIsMultiplicativeElementWithInverse[102X  ([14X31.14-13[114X). Clearly not every matrix has
  a  multiplicative  inverse.  But  the  category [2XIsMatrix[102X ([14X24.2-1[114X) makes each
  matrix  an admissible argument of the operation [2XInverse[102X ([14X31.10-8[114X), which may
  sometimes return [9Xfail[109X. Likewise, two matrices can be multiplied only if they
  are of appropriate shapes.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAnalogous  to the categories of arithmetic elements, there are categories of
  domains of these elements.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[28X    IsObject[128X[104X
    [4X[28X        IsDomain[128X[104X
    [4X[28X            IsMagma[128X[104X
    [4X[28X                IsMagmaWithOne[128X[104X
    [4X[28X                    IsMagmaWithInversesIfNonzero[128X[104X
    [4X[28X                        IsMagmaWithInverses[128X[104X
    [4X[28X            IsAdditiveMagma[128X[104X
    [4X[28X                IsAdditiveMagmaWithZero[128X[104X
    [4X[28X                    IsAdditiveMagmaWithInverses[128X[104X
    [4X[28X            IsExtLSet[128X[104X
    [4X[28X            IsExtRSet[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YOf  course [2XIsDomain[102X ([14X31.9-1[114X) is a subcategory of [2XIsObject[102X ([14X12.1-1[114X). A domain
  that  is  closed under multiplication [10X*[110X is called a magma and it lies in the
  category  [2XIsMagma[102X  ([14X35.1-1[114X). If a magma is closed under taking the identity,
  it  lies  in  [2XIsMagmaWithOne[102X ([14X35.1-2[114X), and if it is also closed under taking
  inverses,   it   lies   in   [2XIsMagmaWithInverses[102X   ([14X35.1-4[114X).   The  category
  [2XIsMagmaWithInversesIfNonzero[102X  ([14X35.1-3[114X) denotes closure under taking inverses
  only for nonzero elements, every division ring lies in this category.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  that every set of categories constitutes its own notion of generation,
  for  example  a  group  may  be  generated  as a magma with inverses by some
  elements, but to generate it as a magma with one it may be necessary to take
  the union of these generators and their inverses.[133X
  
  [1X13.3-1 CategoriesOfObject[101X
  
  [29X[2XCategoriesOfObject[102X( [3Xobject[103X ) [32X operation
  
  [33X[0;0Yreturns a list of the names of the categories in which [3Xobject[103X lies.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xg:=Group((1,2),(1,2,3));;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XCategoriesOfObject(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ "IsListOrCollection", "IsCollection", "IsExtLElement", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "CategoryCollections(IsExtLElement)", "IsExtRElement", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "CategoryCollections(IsExtRElement)", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "CategoryCollections(IsMultiplicativeElement)", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "CategoryCollections(IsMultiplicativeElementWithOne)", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "CategoryCollections(IsMultiplicativeElementWithInverse)", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "CategoryCollections(IsAssociativeElement)", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "CategoryCollections(IsFiniteOrderElement)", "IsGeneralizedDomain", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "CategoryCollections(IsPerm)", "IsMagma", "IsMagmaWithOne", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsMagmaWithInversesIfNonzero", "IsMagmaWithInverses" ][128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  
  [1X13.4 [33X[0;0YRepresentation[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  [13Xrepresentation[113X  of  an  object  is  a  set  of  filters (see [14X13.2[114X) that
  determines how an object is actually represented. For example, a matrix or a
  polynomial  can  be stored sparsely or densely; all dense polynomials form a
  representation. An object which claims to lie in a certain representation is
  accepting  the  requirement  that  certain  fields  in the data structure be
  present and have specified meanings.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[5XGAP[105X  distinguishes  four  essentially  different  ways to represent objects.
  First  there are the representations [10XIsInternalRep[110X for internal objects such
  as integers and permutations, and [10XIsDataObjectRep[110X for other objects that are
  created  and  whose  data  are accessible only by kernel functions. The data
  structures underlying such objects cannot be manipulated at the [5XGAP[105X level.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAll  other  objects are either in the representation [10XIsComponentObjectRep[110X or
  in the representation [10XIsPositionalObjectRep[110X, see [14X79.9[114X and [14X79.10[114X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAn object can belong to several representations in the sense that it lies in
  several     subrepresentations     of     [10XIsComponentObjectRep[110X     or     of
  [10XIsPositionalObjectRep[110X. The representations to which an object belongs should
  form a chain and either two representations are disjoint or one is contained
  in   the  other.  So  the  subrepresentations  of  [10XIsComponentObjectRep[110X  and
  [10XIsPositionalObjectRep[110X  each  form  trees. In the language of Object Oriented
  Programming, we support only single inheritance for representations.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThese trees are typically rather shallow, since for one representation to be
  contained  in  another implies that all the components of the data structure
  implied  by the containing representation, are present in, and have the same
  meaning  in,  the  smaller  representation  (whose data structure presumably
  contains some additional components).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YObjects  may  change  their  representation,  for  example a mutable list of
  characters can be converted into a string.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAll  representations  in  the  library are created during initialization, in
  particular they are not created dynamically at runtime.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YExamples  of  subrepresentations  of [10XIsPositionalObjectRep[110X are [10XIsModulusRep[110X,
  which   is   used   for  residue  classes  in  the  ring  of  integers,  and
  [10XIsDenseCoeffVectorRep[110X,  which  is  used  for  elements  of algebras that are
  defined by structure constants.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAn     important     subrepresentation     of     [10XIsComponentObjectRep[110X    is
  [10XIsAttributeStoringRep[110X,  which  is  used  for  many  domains  and  some other
  objects. It provides automatic storing of all attribute values (see below).[133X
  
  [1X13.4-1 RepresentationsOfObject[101X
  
  [29X[2XRepresentationsOfObject[102X( [3Xobject[103X ) [32X operation
  
  [33X[0;0Yreturns a list of the names of the representations [3Xobject[103X has.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xg:=Group((1,2),(1,2,3));;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XRepresentationsOfObject(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ "IsComponentObjectRep", "IsAttributeStoringRep" ][128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  
  [1X13.5 [33X[0;0YAttributes[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe attributes of an object describe knowledge about it.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAn attribute is a unary operation without side-effects.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAn  object  may store values of its attributes once they have been computed,
  and  claim  that  it knows these values. Note that [21Xstore[121X and [21Xknow[121X have to be
  understood  in  the sense that it is very cheap to get such a value when the
  attribute is called again.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  stored value of an attribute is in general immutable (see [14X12.6[114X), except
  if the attribute had been specially constructed as [21Xmutable attribute[121X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIt  depends  on  the  representation of an object (see [14X13.4[114X) which attribute
  values  it  stores.  An  object  in the representation [10XIsAttributeStoringRep[110X
  stores  [13Xall[113X attribute values once they are computed. Moreover, for an object
  in  this  representation,  subsequent  calls to an attribute will return the
  [13Xsame[113X object; this is achieved via a special method for each attribute setter
  that stores the attribute value in an object in [10XIsAttributeStoringRep[110X, and a
  special  method  for  the attribute itself that fetches the stored attribute
  value.  (These methods are called the [21Xsystem setter[121X and the [21Xsystem getter[121X of
  the attribute, respectively.)[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  also  that  it  is  impossible  to get rid of a stored attribute value
  because  the system may have drawn conclusions from the old attribute value,
  and  just  removing  the  value  might  leave  the  data  structures  in  an
  inconsistent state. If necessary, a new object can be constructed.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YSeveral  attributes  have  methods  for  more than one argument. For example
  [2XIsTransitive[102X  ([14X41.10-1[114X)  is an attribute for a [22XG[122X-set that can also be called
  for  the two arguments, being a group [22XG[122X and its action domain. If attributes
  are  called  with more than one argument then the return value is not stored
  in any of the arguments.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YProperties  are  a  special  form  of attributes that have the value [9Xtrue[109X or
  [9Xfalse[109X, see section [14X13.7[114X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YExamples  of  attributes  for multiplicative elements are [2XInverse[102X ([14X31.10-8[114X),
  [2XOne[102X  ([14X31.10-2[114X),  and  [2XOrder[102X  ([14X31.10-10[114X).  [2XSize[102X  ([14X30.4-6[114X) is an attribute for
  domains,  [2XCentre[102X  ([14X35.4-5[114X)  is  an attribute for magmas, and [2XDerivedSubgroup[102X
  ([14X39.12-3[114X) is an attribute for groups.[133X
  
  [1X13.5-1 KnownAttributesOfObject[101X
  
  [29X[2XKnownAttributesOfObject[102X( [3Xobject[103X ) [32X operation
  
  [33X[0;0Yreturns  a  list  of  the names of the attributes whose values are known for
  [3Xobject[103X.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xg:=Group((1,2),(1,2,3));;Size(g);;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XKnownAttributesOfObject(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ "Size", "OneImmutable", "NrMovedPoints", "MovedPoints", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "GeneratorsOfMagmaWithInverses", "MultiplicativeNeutralElement", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "HomePcgs", "Pcgs", "GeneralizedPcgs", "StabChainMutable", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "StabChainOptions" ][128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  
  [1X13.6 [33X[0;0YSetter and Tester for Attributes[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  every  attribute,  the  [13Xattribute  setter[113X  and the [13Xattribute tester[113X are
  defined.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YTo  check  whether an object belongs to an attribute [3Xattr[103X, the tester of the
  attribute  is  used, see [2XTester[102X ([14X13.6-1[114X). To store a value for the attribute
  [3Xattr[103X in an object, the setter of the attribute is used, see [2XSetter[102X ([14X13.6-2[114X).[133X
  
  [1X13.6-1 Tester[101X
  
  [29X[2XTester[102X( [3Xattr[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0YFor an attribute [3Xattr[103X, [10XTester([3Xattr[103X[10X)[110X is a filter (see [14X13.2[114X) that returns [9Xtrue[109X
  or  [9Xfalse[109X,  depending  on whether or not the value of [3Xattr[103X for the object is
  known.  For example, [10XTester( Size )( [3Xobj[103X[10X )[110X is [9Xtrue[109X if the size of the object
  [3Xobj[103X is known.[133X
  
  [1X13.6-2 Setter[101X
  
  [29X[2XSetter[102X( [3Xattr[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  an  attribute  [3Xattr[103X,  [10XSetter([3Xattr[103X[10X)[110X  is  called  automatically  when the
  attribute  value has been computed for the first time. One can also call the
  setter  explicitly, for example, [10XSetter( Size )( [3Xobj[103X[10X, [3Xval[103X[10X )[110X sets [3Xval[103X as size
  of the object [3Xobj[103X if the size was not yet known.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  each  attribute  [3Xattr[103X  that is declared with [2XDeclareAttribute[102X ([14X79.17-3[114X)
  resp. [2XDeclareProperty[102X   ([14X79.17-4[114X)   (see [14X79.17[114X),   tester   and  setter  are
  automatically   made   accessible   by   the   names  [10XHas[3Xattr[103X[10X[110X  and  [10XSet[3Xattr[103X[10X[110X,
  respectively.  For  example, the tester for [2XSize[102X ([14X30.4-6[114X) is called [10XHasSize[110X,
  and the setter is called [10XSetSize[110X.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xg:=Group((1,2,3,4),(1,2));;Size(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X24[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XHasSize(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xtrue[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XSetSize(g,99);[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XSize(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X24[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  two  properties  [3Xprop1[103X  and  [3Xprop2[103X,  the  intersection  [10X[3Xprop1[103X[10X and [3Xprop2[103X[10X[110X
  (see [14X13.2[114X)  is  again  a  property  for  which  a setter and a tester exist.
  Setting the value of this intersection to [9Xtrue[109X for a [5XGAP[105X object means to set
  the values of [3Xprop1[103X and [3Xprop2[103X to [9Xtrue[109X for this object.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xprop:= IsFinite and IsCommutative;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X<Property "<<and-filter>>">[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xg:= Group( (1,2,3), (4,5) );;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XTester( prop )( g );[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xfalse[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XSetter( prop )( g, true );[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XTester( prop )( g );  prop( g );[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xtrue[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xtrue[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YIt  is  [13Xnot allowed[113X to set the value of such an intersection to [9Xfalse[109X for an
  object.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XSetter( prop )( Rationals, false );[127X[104X
    [4X[28XYou cannot set an "and-filter" except to true[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xnot in any function[128X[104X
    [4X[28XEntering break read-eval-print loop ...[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xyou can 'quit;' to quit to outer loop, or[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xyou can type 'return true;' to set all components true[128X[104X
    [4X[28X(but you might really want to reset just one component) to continue[128X[104X
    [4X[26Xbrk>[126X [27X[127X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [1X13.6-3 AttributeValueNotSet[101X
  
  [29X[2XAttributeValueNotSet[102X( [3Xattr[103X, [3Xobj[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0YIf   the   value   of   the  attribute  [3Xattr[103X  is  already  stored  for  [3Xobj[103X,
  [10XAttributeValueNotSet[110X simply returns this value. Otherwise the value of [10X[3Xattr[103X[10X(
  [3Xobj[103X[10X )[110X is computed and returned [13Xwithout storing it[113X in [3Xobj[103X. This can be useful
  when [21Xlarge[121X attribute values (such as element lists) are needed only once and
  shall not be stored in the object.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XHasAsSSortedList(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xfalse[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XAttributeValueNotSet(AsSSortedList,g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ (), (4,5), (1,2,3), (1,2,3)(4,5), (1,3,2), (1,3,2)(4,5) ][128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XHasAsSSortedList(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xfalse[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  normal  behaviour of attributes (when called with just one argument) is
  that  once a method has been selected and executed, and has returned a value
  the  setter  of  the  attribute  is called, to (possibly) store the computed
  value.  In  special circumstances, this behaviour can be altered dynamically
  on     an     attribute-by-attribute     basis,    using    the    functions
  [10XDisableAttributeValueStoring[110X and [10XEnableAttributeValueStoring[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIn  general,  the  code  in the library assumes, for efficiency, but not for
  correctness,  that attribute values [13Xwill[113X be stored (in suitable objects), so
  disabling storing may cause substantial computations to be repeated.[133X
  
  [1X13.6-4 InfoAttributes[101X
  
  [29X[2XInfoAttributes[102X[32X info class
  
  [33X[0;0YThis  info  class  (together  with  [2XInfoWarning[102X ([14X7.4-7[114X) is used for messages
  about attribute storing being disabled (at level 2) or enabled (level 3). It
  may be used in the future for other messages concerning changes to attribute
  behaviour.[133X
  
  [1X13.6-5 DisableAttributeValueStoring[101X
  
  [29X[2XDisableAttributeValueStoring[102X( [3Xattr[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Ydisables  the  usual call of [10XSetter( [3Xattr[103X[10X )[110X when a method for [3Xattr[103X returns a
  value.  In  consequence the values will never be stored. Note that [3Xattr[103X must
  be an attribute and [13Xnot[113X a property.[133X
  
  [1X13.6-6 EnableAttributeValueStoring[101X
  
  [29X[2XEnableAttributeValueStoring[102X( [3Xattr[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Yenables  the  usual  call of [10XSetter( [3Xattr[103X[10X )[110X when a method for [3Xattr[103X returns a
  value.  In  consequence  the values may be stored. This will usually have no
  effect  unless  [10XDisableAttributeValueStoring[110X  has  previously  been used for
  [3Xattr[103X. Note that [3Xattr[103X must be an attribute and [13Xnot[113X a property.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xg := Group((1,2,3,4,5),(1,2,3));[127X[104X
    [4X[28XGroup([ (1,2,3,4,5), (1,2,3) ])[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XKnownAttributesOfObject(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ "LargestMovedPoint", "GeneratorsOfMagmaWithInverses", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "MultiplicativeNeutralElement" ][128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XSetInfoLevel(InfoAttributes,3);[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XDisableAttributeValueStoring(Size);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X#I  Disabling value storing for Size[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XSize(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X60[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XKnownAttributesOfObject(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ "OneImmutable", "LargestMovedPoint", "NrMovedPoints", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "MovedPoints", "GeneratorsOfMagmaWithInverses", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "MultiplicativeNeutralElement", "StabChainMutable", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "StabChainOptions" ][128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XSize(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X60[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XEnableAttributeValueStoring(Size);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X#I  Enabling value storing for Size[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XSize(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X60[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XKnownAttributesOfObject(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ "Size", "OneImmutable", "LargestMovedPoint", "NrMovedPoints", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "MovedPoints", "GeneratorsOfMagmaWithInverses", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "MultiplicativeNeutralElement", "StabChainMutable", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "StabChainOptions" ][128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  
  [1X13.7 [33X[0;0YProperties[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  properties  of  an  object are those of its attributes (see [14X13.5[114X) whose
  values can only be [9Xtrue[109X or [9Xfalse[109X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  main  difference  between  attributes and properties is that a property
  defines  two  sets of objects, namely the usual set of all objects for which
  the  value is known, and the set of all objects for which the value is known
  to be [9Xtrue[109X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y(Note  that  it  makes  no  sense to consider a third set, namely the set of
  objects  for  which  the  value  of  a property is [9Xtrue[109X whether or not it is
  known,  since  there  may  be  objects for which the containment in this set
  cannot be decided.)[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  a  property  [3Xprop[103X, the containment of an object [3Xobj[103X in the first set is
  checked  again by applying [10XTester( [3Xprop[103X[10X )[110X to [3Xobj[103X, and [3Xobj[103X lies in the second
  set if and only if [10XTester( [3Xprop[103X[10X )( [3Xobj[103X[10X ) and [3Xprop[103X[10X( [3Xobj[103X[10X )[110X is [9Xtrue[109X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIf a property value is known for an immutable object then this value is also
  stored,  as  part of the type of the object. To some extent, property values
  of  mutable  objects  also  can be stored, for example a mutable list all of
  whose  entries  are  immutable can store whether it is strictly sorted. When
  the  object is mutated (for example by list assignment) the type may need to
  be adjusted.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YImportant  properties  for domains are [2XIsAssociative[102X ([14X35.4-7[114X), [2XIsCommutative[102X
  ([14X35.4-9[114X),   [2XIsAnticommutative[102X   ([14X56.4-6[114X),   [2XIsLDistributive[102X   ([14X56.4-3[114X)   and
  [2XIsRDistributive[102X  ([14X56.4-4[114X), which mean that the multiplication of elements in
  the domain satisfies [22X( a * b ) * c = a * ( b * c )[122X, [22Xa * b = b * a[122X, [22Xa * b = -
  ( b * a )[122X, [22Xa * ( b + c ) = a * b + a * c[122X, and [22X( a + b ) * c = a * c + b * c[122X,
  respectively, for all [22Xa[122X, [22Xb[122X, [22Xc[122X in the domain.[133X
  
  [1X13.7-1 KnownPropertiesOfObject[101X
  
  [29X[2XKnownPropertiesOfObject[102X( [3Xobject[103X ) [32X operation
  
  [33X[0;0Yreturns  a  list  of  the names of the properties whose values are known for
  [3Xobject[103X.[133X
  
  [1X13.7-2 KnownTruePropertiesOfObject[101X
  
  [29X[2XKnownTruePropertiesOfObject[102X( [3Xobject[103X ) [32X operation
  
  [33X[0;0Yreturns a list of the names of the properties known to be [9Xtrue[109X for [3Xobject[103X.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xg:=Group((1,2),(1,2,3));;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XKnownPropertiesOfObject(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ "IsFinite", "CanEasilyCompareElements", "CanEasilySortElements", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsDuplicateFree", "IsGeneratorsOfMagmaWithInverses", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsAssociative", "IsSimpleSemigroup", "IsFinitelyGeneratedGroup", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsSubsetLocallyFiniteGroup", "KnowsHowToDecompose", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsNilpotentByFinite" ][128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XSize(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X6[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XKnownPropertiesOfObject(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ "IsEmpty", "IsTrivial", "IsNonTrivial", "IsFinite", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "CanEasilyCompareElements", "CanEasilySortElements", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsDuplicateFree", "IsGeneratorsOfMagmaWithInverses", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsAssociative", "IsSimpleSemigroup", "IsFinitelyGeneratedGroup", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsSubsetLocallyFiniteGroup", "KnowsHowToDecompose", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsPerfectGroup", "IsSolvableGroup", "IsPolycyclicGroup", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsNilpotentByFinite", "IsTorsionFree", "IsFreeAbelian" ][128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XKnownTruePropertiesOfObject(g);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ "IsNonTrivial", "IsFinite", "CanEasilyCompareElements", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "CanEasilySortElements", "IsDuplicateFree", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsGeneratorsOfMagmaWithInverses", "IsAssociative", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsSimpleSemigroup", "IsFinitelyGeneratedGroup", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsSubsetLocallyFiniteGroup", "KnowsHowToDecompose", [128X[104X
    [4X[28X  "IsSolvableGroup", "IsPolycyclicGroup", "IsNilpotentByFinite" ][128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  
  [1X13.8 [33X[0;0YOther Filters[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YThere  are situations where one wants to express a kind of knowledge that is
  based on some heuristic.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  example,  the  filters (see [14X13.2[114X) [2XCanEasilyTestMembership[102X ([14X39.25-1[114X) and
  [2XCanEasilyComputePcgs[102X ([14X45.2-3[114X) are defined in the [5XGAP[105X library. Note that such
  filters  do not correspond to a mathematical concept, contrary to properties
  (see [14X13.7[114X).  Also  it need not be defined what [21Xeasily[121X means for an arbitrary
  [5XGAP[105X  object,  and in this case one cannot compute the value for an arbitrary
  [5XGAP[105X  object. In order to access this kind of knowledge as a part of the type
  of  an object, [5XGAP[105X provides filters for which the value is [9Xfalse[109X by default,
  and  it is changed to [9Xtrue[109X in certain situations, either explicitly (for the
  given object) or via a logical implication (see [14X78.7[114X) from other filters.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor example, a [9Xtrue[109X value of [2XCanEasilyComputePcgs[102X ([14X45.2-3[114X) for a group means
  that  certain  methods  are  applicable  that  use a pcgs (see [14X45.1[114X) for the
  group.  There  are  logical implications to set the filter value to [9Xtrue[109X for
  permutation  groups  that are known to be solvable, and for groups that have
  already  a  (sufficiently  nice) pcgs stored. In the case one has a solvable
  matrix  group  and  wants to enable methods that use a pcgs, one can set the
  [2XCanEasilyComputePcgs[102X ([14X45.2-3[114X) value to [9Xtrue[109X for this particular group.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA filter [3Xfilt[103X of the kind described here is different from the other filters
  introduced  in  the previous sections. In particular, [3Xfilt[103X is not a category
  (see [14X13.3[114X) or a property (see [14X13.7[114X) because its value may change for a given
  object,  and  [3Xfilt[103X is not a representation (see [14X13.4[114X) because it has nothing
  to  do  with the way an object is made up from some data. [3Xfilt[103X is similar to
  an  attribute  tester  (see [14X13.6[114X), the only difference is that [3Xfilt[103X does not
  refer  to an attribute value; note that [3Xfilt[103X is also used in the same way as
  an  attribute  tester;  namely,  the  [9Xtrue[109X value may be required for certain
  methods to be applicable.[133X
  
  
  [1X13.9 [33X[0;0YTypes[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YWe  stated  above  (see [14X13[114X) that, for an object [3Xobj[103X, its [13Xtype[113X is formed from
  its family and its filters. There is a also a third component, used in a few
  situations, namely defining data of the type.[133X
  
  [1X13.9-1 TypeObj[101X
  
  [29X[2XTypeObj[102X( [3Xobj[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Yreturns the type of the object [3Xobj[103X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe type of an object is itself an object.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YTwo  types  are  equal  if  and  only if the two families are identical, the
  filters  are equal, and, if present, also the defining data of the types are
  equal.[133X
  
  [1X13.9-2 DataType[101X
  
  [29X[2XDataType[102X( [3Xtype[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  last part of the type, defining data, has not been mentioned before and
  seems  to  be of minor importance. It can be used, e.g., for cosets [22XU g[122X of a
  group  [22XU[122X,  where  the type of each coset may contain the group [22XU[122X as defining
  data.  As  a consequence, two such cosets mod [22XU[122X and [22XV[122X can have the same type
  only  if  [22XU  =  V[122X.  The  defining  data of the type [3Xtype[103X can be accessed via
  [2XDataType[102X.[133X
  
