  
  [1X4 [33X[0;0YThe Programming Language[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YThis  chapter describes the [5XGAP[105X programming language. It should allow you in
  principle  to  predict  the result of each and every input. In order to know
  what we are talking about, we first have to look more closely at the process
  of interpretation and the various representations of data involved.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.1 [33X[0;0YLanguage Overview[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YFirst  we  have the input to [5XGAP[105X, given as a string of characters. How those
  characters  enter  [5XGAP[105X  is  operating  system dependent, e.g., they might be
  entered  at  a  terminal,  pasted with a mouse into a window, or read from a
  file.  The  mechanism does not matter. This representation of expressions by
  characters  is  called  the [13Xexternal representation[113X of the expression. Every
  expression  has  at least one external representation that can be entered to
  get exactly this expression.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  input,  i.e.,  the external representation, is transformed in a process
  called  [13Xreading[113X  to  an  internal representation. At this point the input is
  analyzed  and  inputs that are not legal external representations, according
  to  the  rules  given below, are rejected as errors. Those rules are usually
  called the [13Xsyntax[113X of a programming language.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe   internal  representation  created  by  reading  is  called  either  an
  [13Xexpression[113X  or  a  [13Xstatement[113X.  Later  we  will distinguish between those two
  terms.  However  for now we will use them interchangeably. The exact form of
  the  internal  representation  does  not  matter.  It  could  be a string of
  characters  equal  to the external representation, in which case the reading
  would  only  need  to  check  for  errors.  It  could be a series of machine
  instructions  for  the  processor on which [5XGAP[105X is running, in which case the
  reading  would  more  appropriately  be  called compilation. It is in fact a
  tree-like structure.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAfter  the  input  has been read it is again transformed in a process called
  [13Xevaluation[113X  or  [13Xexecution[113X. Later we will distinguish between those two terms
  too,  but for the moment we will use them interchangeably. The name hints at
  the  nature of this process, it replaces an expression with the value of the
  expression.  This  works  recursively, i.e., to evaluate an expression first
  the  subexpressions  are  evaluated  and then the value of the expression is
  computed  from  those values according to rules given below. Those rules are
  usually called the [13Xsemantics[113X of a programming language.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe result of the evaluation is, not surprisingly, called a [13Xvalue[113X. Again the
  form  in which such a value is represented internally does not matter. It is
  in fact a tree-like structure again.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  last  process  is  called  [13Xprinting[113X. It takes the value produced by the
  evaluation  and  creates  an  external  representation,  i.e.,  a  string of
  characters  again.  What  you  do with this external representation is up to
  you.  You  can  look  at it, paste it with the mouse into another window, or
  write it to a file.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YLets  look  at  an  example to make this more clear. Suppose you type in the
  following string of 8 characters[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4X1 + 2 * 3;[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[5XGAP[105X  takes  this  external  representation  and creates a tree-like internal
  representation, which we can picture as follows[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4X  +[104X
    [4X / \[104X
    [4X1   *[104X
    [4X   / \[104X
    [4X  2   3[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YThis  expression is then evaluated. To do this [5XGAP[105X first evaluates the right
  subexpression  [10X2*3[110X. Again, to do this [5XGAP[105X first evaluates its subexpressions
  2  and  3.  However they are so simple that they are their own value, we say
  that  they  are  self-evaluating.  After  this has been done, the rule for [10X*[110X
  tells  us  that  the  value  is  the  product  of  the  values  of  the  two
  subexpressions,  which  in  this  case is clearly 6. Combining this with the
  value  of the left operand of the [10X+[110X, which is self-evaluating, too, gives us
  the  value  of the whole expression 7. This is then printed, i.e., converted
  into the external representation consisting of the single character [10X7[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIn  this  fashion  we can predict the result of every input when we know the
  syntactic  rules  that  govern the process of reading and the semantic rules
  that  tell us for every expression how its value is computed in terms of the
  values of the subexpressions. The syntactic rules are given in sections [14X4.2[114X,
  [14X4.3[114X,  [14X4.4[114X,  [14X4.5[114X, and [14X4.6[114X, the semantic rules are given in sections [14X4.7[114X, [14X4.8[114X,
  [14X4.11[114X,  [14X4.12[114X,  [14X4.13[114X,  [14X4.14[114X, [14X4.15[114X, [14X4.16[114X, [14X4.17[114X, [14X4.18[114X, [14X4.19[114X, [14X4.20[114X, [14X4.23[114X, and the
  chapters describing the individual data types.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.2 [33X[0;0YLexical Structure[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YMost input of [5XGAP[105X consists of sequences of the following characters.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YDigits, uppercase and lowercase letters, [12XSpace[112X, [12XTab[112X, [12XNewline[112X, [12XReturn[112X and the
  special characters[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4X"    `    (    )    *    +    ,    -    #[104X
    [4X.    /    :    ;    <    =    >    ~    [104X
    [4X[    \    ]    ^    _    {    }    ! [104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YIt  is possible to use other characters in identifiers by escaping them with
  backslashes,  but  we  do  not recommend to use this feature. Inside strings
  (see  section [14X4.3[114X  and chapter [14X27[114X) and comments (see [14X4.4[114X) the full character
  set supported by the computer is allowed.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.3 [33X[0;0YSymbols[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  process of reading, i.e., of assembling the input into expressions, has
  a subprocess, called [13Xscanning[113X, that assembles the characters into symbols. A
  [13Xsymbol[113X  is  a  sequence  of  characters that form a lexical unit. The set of
  symbols  consists  of keywords, identifiers, strings, integers, and operator
  and delimiter symbols.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA  [13Xkeyword[113X  is  a  reserved  word  (see [14X4.5[114X). An [13Xidentifier[113X is a sequence of
  letters, digits and underscores (or other characters escaped by backslashes)
  that  contains  at  least  one  non-digit and is not a keyword (see [14X4.6[114X). An
  integer is a sequence of digits (see [14X14[114X), possibly prepended by [10X-[110X and [10X+[110X sign
  characters.  A  [13Xstring[113X  is  a  sequence  of arbitrary characters enclosed in
  double quotes (see [14X27[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YOperator and delimiter symbols are[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4X+    -    *    /    ^    ~   !.[104X
    [4X=    <>   <    <=   >    >=  ![[104X
    [4X:=   .    ..   ->   ,    ;   !{[104X
    [4X[    ]    {    }    (    )    :[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote also that during the process of scanning all whitespace is removed (see
  [14X4.4[114X).[133X
  
  
  [1X4.4 [33X[0;0YWhitespaces[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  characters  [12XSpace[112X,  [12XTab[112X,  [12XNewline[112X,  and  [12XReturn[112X  are  called [13Xwhitespace
  characters[113X.  Whitespace  is  used  as necessary to separate lexical symbols,
  such  as  integers,  identifiers,  or  keywords.  For example [10XThorondor[110X is a
  single  identifier,  while  [10XTh  or  ondor[110X  is the keyword [9Xor[109X between the two
  identifiers  [10XTh[110X and [10Xondor[110X. Whitespace may occur between any two symbols, but
  not  within  a  symbol.  Two  or  more  adjacent  whitespace  characters are
  equivalent  to  a  single  whitespace.  Apart  from the role as separator of
  symbols,  whitespace  characters  are  otherwise  insignificant.  Whitespace
  characters  may  also  occur  inside  a  string, where they are significant.
  Whitespace characters should also be used freely for improved readability.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA  [13Xcomment[113X  starts  with the character [10X#[110X, which is sometimes called sharp or
  hatch,  and  continues to the end of the line on which the comment character
  appears. The whole comment, including [10X#[110X and the [12XNewline[112X character is treated
  as  a  single whitespace. Inside a string, the comment character [10X#[110X loses its
  role and is just an ordinary character.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor example, the following statement[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4Xif i<0 then a:=-i;else a:=i;fi;[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0Yis equivalent to[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4Xif i < 0 then   # if i is negative[104X
    [4X  a := -i;      #   take its additive inverse[104X
    [4Xelse            # otherwise[104X
    [4X  a := i;       #   take itself[104X
    [4Xfi;[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0Y(which  by the way shows that it is possible to write superfluous comments).
  However the first statement is [13Xnot[113X equivalent to[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4Xifi<0thena:=-i;elsea:=i;fi;[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0Ysince  the  keyword  [9Xif[109X  must  be  separated  from  the  identifier  [10Xi[110X  by a
  whitespace, and similarly [9Xthen[109X and [10Xa[110X, and [9Xelse[109X and [10Xa[110X must be separated.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.5 [33X[0;0YKeywords[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[13XKeywords[113X  are  reserved  words that are used to denote special operations or
  are  part  of  statements. They must not be used as identifiers. The list of
  keywords  is  contained  in  the  [10XGAPInfo.Keywords[110X  component of the [10XGAPInfo[110X
  record  (see  [14X3.5-1[114X).  We  will  show  how  to  print  it  in  a nice table,
  demonstrating at the same time some list manipulation techniques:[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xkeys:=SortedList( GAPInfo.Keywords );; l:=Length( keys );;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xarr:= List( [ 0 .. Int( l/4 )-1 ], i-> keys{ 4*i + [ 1 .. 4 ] } );;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xif l mod 4 <> 0 then Add( arr, keys{[ 4*Int(l/4) + 1 .. l ]} ); fi;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XLength( keys ); PrintArray( arr );[127X[104X
    [4X[28X32[128X[104X
    [4X[28X[ [         Assert,           Info,        IsBound,           QUIT ],[128X[104X
    [4X[28X  [  TryNextMethod,         Unbind,            and,          break ],[128X[104X
    [4X[28X  [       continue,             do,           elif,           else ],[128X[104X
    [4X[28X  [            end,          false,             fi,            for ],[128X[104X
    [4X[28X  [       function,             if,             in,          local ],[128X[104X
    [4X[28X  [            mod,            not,             od,             or ],[128X[104X
    [4X[28X  [           quit,            rec,         repeat,         return ],[128X[104X
    [4X[28X  [           then,           true,          until,          while ] ][128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  that  (almost) all keywords are written in lowercase and that they are
  case sensitive. For example [9Xelse[109X is a keyword; [10XElse[110X, [10XeLsE[110X, [10XELSE[110X and so forth
  are  ordinary identifiers. Keywords must not contain whitespace, for example
  [10Xel if[110X is not the same as [9Xelif[109X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[13XNote[113X: Several tokens from the list of keywords above may appear to be normal
  identifiers  representing  functions  or  literals  of various kinds but are
  actually implemented as keywords for technical reasons. The only consequence
  of this is that those identifiers cannot be re-assigned, and do not actually
  have  function  objects  bound  to  them,  which  could be assigned to other
  variables  or  passed  to  functions. These keywords are [9Xtrue[109X, [9Xfalse[109X, [2XAssert[102X
  ([14X7.5-3[114X),  [2XIsBound[102X  ([14X4.8-1[114X),  [2XUnbind[102X  ([14X4.8-2[114X), [2XInfo[102X ([14X7.4-5[114X) and [2XTryNextMethod[102X
  ([14X78.4-1[114X).[133X
  
  
  [1X4.6 [33X[0;0YIdentifiers[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YAn  [13Xidentifier[113X  is  used  to  refer  to  a variable (see [14X4.8[114X). An identifier
  usually consists of letters, digits, underscores [10X_[110X, and [21Xat[121X-characters [10X@[110X, and
  must  contain  at  least  one  non-digit. An identifier is terminated by the
  first  character  not in this class. Note that the [21Xat[121X-character [10X@[110X is used to
  implement namespaces, see Section [14X4.10[114X for details.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YExamples of valid identifiers are[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4Xa           foo         aLongIdentifier[104X
    [4Xhello       Hello       HELLO[104X
    [4Xx100        100x       _100[104X
    [4Xsome_people_prefer_underscores_to_separate_words[104X
    [4XWePreferMixedCaseToSeparateWords[104X
    [4Xabc@def[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  that  case is significant, so the three identifiers in the second line
  are distinguished.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  backslash  [10X\[110X  can be used to include other characters in identifiers; a
  backslash  followed  by  a  character is equivalent to the character, except
  that  this  escape  sequence  is  considered  to  be an ordinary letter. For
  example[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4XG\(2\,5\)[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0Yis an identifier, not a call to a function [10XG[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAn  identifier  that  starts  with  a  backslash  is never a keyword, so for
  example [10X\*[110X and [10X\mod[110X are identifiers.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  length  of  identifiers  is  not  limited,  however only the first [22X1023[122X
  characters  are significant. The escape sequence [10X\[110X[12Xnewline[112X is ignored, making
  it possible to split long identifiers over multiple lines.[133X
  
  [1X4.6-1 IsValidIdentifier[101X
  
  [29X[2XIsValidIdentifier[102X( [3Xstr[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Yreturns  [9Xtrue[109X  if the string [3Xstr[103X would form a valid identifier consisting of
  letters,  digits  and  underscores;  otherwise it returns [9Xfalse[109X. It does not
  check whether [3Xstr[103X contains characters escaped by a backslash [10X\[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  that  the  [21Xat[121X-character  is  used  to  implement namespaces for global
  variables in packages. See [14X4.10[114X for details.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.7 [33X[0;0YExpressions[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YAn [13Xexpression[113X is a construct that evaluates to a value. Syntactic constructs
  that  are  executed  to produce a side effect and return no value are called
  [13Xstatements[113X (see [14X4.14[114X). Expressions appear as right hand sides of assignments
  (see  [14X4.15[114X),  as  actual  arguments  in  function  calls  (see [14X4.11[114X), and in
  statements.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote that an expression is not the same as a value. For example [10X1 + 11[110X is an
  expression,  whose  value  is the integer 12. The external representation of
  this  integer is the character sequence [10X12[110X, i.e., this sequence is output if
  the  integer  is printed. This sequence is another expression whose value is
  the integer [22X12[122X. The process of finding the value of an expression is done by
  the interpreter and is called the [13Xevaluation[113X of the expression.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YVariables, function calls, and integer, permutation, string, function, list,
  and  record  literals  (see  [14X4.8[114X,  [14X4.11[114X,  [14X14[114X, [14X42[114X, [14X27[114X, [14X4.23[114X, [14X21[114X, [14X29[114X), are the
  simplest cases of expressions.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YExpressions,  for  example  the  simple  expressions mentioned above, can be
  combined  with  the  operators  to  form more complex expressions. Of course
  those  expressions  can  then be combined further with the operators to form
  even  more  complex  expressions. The [13Xoperators[113X fall into three classes. The
  [13Xcomparisons[113X  are  [10X=[110X,  [10X<>[110X,  [10X<[110X,  [10X<=[110X,  [10X>[110X,  [10X>=[110X,  and [9Xin[109X (see [14X4.12[114X and [14X30.6[114X). The
  [13Xarithmetic  operators[113X  are  [10X+[110X,  [10X-[110X,  [10X*[110X, [10X/[110X, [9Xmod[109X, and [10X^[110X (see [14X4.13[114X). The [13Xlogical
  operators[113X are [9Xnot[109X, [9Xand[109X, and [9Xor[109X (see [14X20.4[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe following example shows a very simple expression with value 4 and a more
  complex expression.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27X2 * 2;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X4[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27X2 * 2 + 9 = Fibonacci(7) and Fibonacci(13) in Primes;[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xtrue[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor the precedence of operators, see [14X4.12[114X.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.8 [33X[0;0YVariables[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YA [13Xvariable[113X is a location in a [5XGAP[105X program that points to a value. We say the
  variable  is [13Xbound[113X to this value. If a variable is evaluated it evaluates to
  this value.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YInitially  an  ordinary variable is not bound to any value. The variable can
  be  bound  to  a  value  by [13Xassigning[113X this value to the variable (see [14X4.15[114X).
  Because  of  this  we sometimes say that a variable that is not bound to any
  value  has  no assigned value. Assignment is in fact the only way by which a
  variable,  which  is not an argument of a function, can be bound to a value.
  After a variable has been bound to a value an assignment can also be used to
  bind the variable to another value.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA  special  class  of variables is the class of [13Xarguments[113X of functions. They
  behave  similarly  to other variables, except they are bound to the value of
  the actual arguments upon a function call (see [14X4.11[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YEach variable has a name that is also called its [13Xidentifier[113X. This is because
  in  a  given  scope  an identifier identifies a unique variable (see [14X4.6[114X). A
  [13Xscope[113X  is  a  lexical part of a program text. There is the [13Xglobal scope[113X that
  encloses the entire program text, and there are local scopes that range from
  the  [9Xfunction[109X  keyword,  denoting the beginning of a function definition, to
  the corresponding [9Xend[109X keyword. A [13Xlocal scope[113X introduces new variables, whose
  identifiers  are given in the formal argument list and the [9Xlocal[109X declaration
  of  the function (see [14X4.23[114X). Usage of an identifier in a program text refers
  to the variable in the innermost scope that has this identifier as its name.
  Because  this mapping from identifiers to variables is done when the program
  is  read,  not when it is executed, [5XGAP[105X is said to have [13Xlexical scoping[113X. The
  following  example shows how one identifier refers to different variables at
  different points in the program text.[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4Xg := 0;      # global variable g[104X
    [4Xx := function ( a, b, c )[104X
    [4X  local  y;[104X
    [4X  g := c;     # c refers to argument c of function x[104X
    [4X  y := function ( y )[104X
    [4X    local d, e, f;[104X
    [4X    d := y;   # y refers to argument y of function y[104X
    [4X    e := b;   # b refers to argument b of function x[104X
    [4X    f := g;   # g refers to global variable g[104X
    [4X    return d + e + f;[104X
    [4X  end;[104X
    [4X  return y( a ); # y refers to local y of function x[104X
    [4Xend;[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YIt  is  important  to  note  that  the concept of a variable in [5XGAP[105X is quite
  different  from  the  concept  of  a  variable  in most compiled programming
  languages.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIn  those  languages  a variable denotes a block of memory. The value of the
  variable  is  stored  in this block. So in those languages two variables can
  have  the same value, but they can never have identical values, because they
  denote different blocks of memory. Note that some languages have the concept
  of  a  reference  argument. It seems as if such an argument and the variable
  used  in  the  actual  function call have the same value, since changing the
  argument's  value  also changes the value of the variable used in the actual
  function  call.  But  this  is  not so; the reference argument is actually a
  pointer  to  the  variable  used  in the actual function call, and it is the
  compiler  that  inserts enough magic to make the pointer invisible. In order
  for this to work the compiler needs enough information to compute the amount
  of  memory needed for each variable in a program, which is readily available
  in the declarations.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIn [5XGAP[105X on the other hand each variable just points to a value, and different
  variables can share the same value.[133X
  
  [1X4.8-1 IsBound[101X
  
  [29X[2XIsBound[102X( [3Xident[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Y[2XIsBound[102X  returns  [9Xtrue[109X  if  the  variable [3Xident[103X points to a value, and [9Xfalse[109X
  otherwise.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  records  and  lists  [2XIsBound[102X can be used to check whether components or
  entries, respectively, are bound (see Chapters [14X29[114X and [14X21[114X).[133X
  
  [1X4.8-2 Unbind[101X
  
  [29X[2XUnbind[102X( [3Xident[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Ydeletes  the identifier [3Xident[103X. If there is no other variable pointing to the
  same  value  as  [3Xident[103X  was,  this value will be removed by the next garbage
  collection.  Therefore  [2XUnbind[102X  can  be  used  to  get rid of unwanted large
  objects.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  records  and  lists [2XUnbind[102X can be used to delete components or entries,
  respectively (see Chapters [14X29[114X and [14X21[114X).[133X
  
  
  [1X4.9 [33X[0;0YMore About Global Variables[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  vast  majority  of variables in [5XGAP[105X are defined at the outer level (the
  global  scope).  They are used to access functions and other objects created
  either in the [5XGAP[105X library or packages or in the user's code.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  that  for  packages  there  is  a mechanism to implement package local
  namespaces on top of this global namespace. See Section [14X4.10[114X for details.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YCertain  special  facilities  are provided for manipulating global variables
  which are not available for other types of variable (such as local variables
  or function arguments).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFirst,  such  variables  may  be marked [13Xread-only[113X. In which case attempts to
  change  them  will  fail.  Most  of  the global variables defined in the [5XGAP[105X
  library are so marked.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YSecond,  a  group  of  functions are supplied for accessing and altering the
  values assigned to global variables. Use of these functions differs from the
  use  of  assignment,  [2XUnbind[102X  ([14X4.8-2[114X) and [2XIsBound[102X ([14X4.8-1[114X) statements, in two
  ways.  First,  these functions always affect global variables, even if local
  variables  of the same names exist. Second, the variable names are passed as
  strings, rather than being written directly into the statements.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  that  the  functions  [2XNamesGVars[102X  ([14X4.9-8[114X),  [2XNamesSystemGVars[102X  ([14X4.9-9[114X),
  [2XNamesUserGVars[102X  ([14X4.9-10[114X),  and [2XTemporaryGlobalVarName[102X ([14X4.9-11[114X) deal with the
  [13Xglobal namespace[113X.[133X
  
  [1X4.9-1 IsReadOnlyGlobal[101X
  
  [29X[2XIsReadOnlyGlobal[102X( [3Xname[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Yreturns  [9Xtrue[109X  if  the global variable named by the string [3Xname[103X is read-only
  and [9Xfalse[109X otherwise (the default).[133X
  
  [1X4.9-2 MakeReadOnlyGlobal[101X
  
  [29X[2XMakeReadOnlyGlobal[102X( [3Xname[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Ymarks the global variable named by the string [3Xname[103X as read-only.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA  warning  is  given  if  [3Xname[103X has no value bound to it or if it is already
  read-only.[133X
  
  [1X4.9-3 MakeReadWriteGlobal[101X
  
  [29X[2XMakeReadWriteGlobal[102X( [3Xname[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Ymarks the global variable named by the string [3Xname[103X as read-write.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA warning is given if [3Xname[103X is already read-write.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xxx := 17;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X17[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XIsReadOnlyGlobal("xx");[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xfalse[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xxx := 15;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X15[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XMakeReadOnlyGlobal("xx");[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xxx := 16;[127X[104X
    [4X[28XVariable: 'xx' is read only[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xnot in any function[128X[104X
    [4X[28XEntering break read-eval-print loop ...[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xyou can 'quit;' to quit to outer loop, or[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xyou can 'return;' after making it writable to continue[128X[104X
    [4X[26Xbrk>[126X [27Xquit;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XIsReadOnlyGlobal("xx");[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xtrue[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XMakeReadWriteGlobal("xx");[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xxx := 16;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X16[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XIsReadOnlyGlobal("xx");[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xfalse[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [1X4.9-4 ValueGlobal[101X
  
  [29X[2XValueGlobal[102X( [3Xname[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Yreturns the value currently bound to the global variable named by the string
  [3Xname[103X. An error is raised if no value is currently bound.[133X
  
  [1X4.9-5 IsBoundGlobal[101X
  
  [29X[2XIsBoundGlobal[102X( [3Xname[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Yreturns  [9Xtrue[109X if a value currently bound to the global variable named by the
  string [3Xname[103X and [9Xfalse[109X otherwise.[133X
  
  [1X4.9-6 UnbindGlobal[101X
  
  [29X[2XUnbindGlobal[102X( [3Xname[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Yremoves any value currently bound to the global variable named by the string
  [3Xname[103X. Nothing is returned.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA  warning is given if [3Xname[103X was not bound. The global variable named by [3Xname[103X
  must be writable, otherwise an error is raised.[133X
  
  [1X4.9-7 BindGlobal[101X
  
  [29X[2XBindGlobal[102X( [3Xname[103X, [3Xval[103X ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Ysets the global variable named by the string [3Xname[103X to the value [3Xval[103X, provided
  it  is  writable,  and  makes  it  read-only. If [3Xname[103X already had a value, a
  warning message is printed.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThis  is  intended  to  be  the normal way to create and set [21Xofficial[121X global
  variables (such as operations and filters).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YCaution  should be exercised in using these functions, especially [2XBindGlobal[102X
  and  [2XUnbindGlobal[102X  ([14X4.9-6[114X)  as unexpected changes in global variables can be
  very confusing for the user.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xxx := 16;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X16[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XIsReadOnlyGlobal("xx");[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xfalse[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XValueGlobal("xx");[127X[104X
    [4X[28X16[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XIsBoundGlobal("xx");[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xtrue[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XBindGlobal("xx",17);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X#W BIND_GLOBAL: variable `xx' already has a value[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xxx;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X17[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XIsReadOnlyGlobal("xx");[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xtrue[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XMakeReadWriteGlobal("xx");[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XUnbind(xx);[127X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [1X4.9-8 NamesGVars[101X
  
  [29X[2XNamesGVars[102X(  ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0YThis function returns an immutable (see [14X12.6[114X) sorted (see [14X21.19[114X) list of all
  the  global  variable  names  known  to  the  system. This includes names of
  variables  which  were  bound but have now been unbound and some other names
  which  have  never been bound but have become known to the system by various
  routes.[133X
  
  [1X4.9-9 NamesSystemGVars[101X
  
  [29X[2XNamesSystemGVars[102X(  ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0YThis  function  returns  an immutable sorted list of all the global variable
  names created by the [5XGAP[105X library when [5XGAP[105X was started.[133X
  
  [1X4.9-10 NamesUserGVars[101X
  
  [29X[2XNamesUserGVars[102X(  ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0YThis  function returns an immutable sorted list of the global variable names
  created since the library was read, to which a value is currently bound.[133X
  
  [1X4.9-11 TemporaryGlobalVarName[101X
  
  [29X[2XTemporaryGlobalVarName[102X( [[3Xprefix[103X] ) [32X function
  
  [33X[0;0Yreturns  a  string that can be used as the name of a global variable that is
  not  bound  at  the time when [2XTemporaryGlobalVarName[102X is called. The optional
  argument  [3Xprefix[103X  can  specify  a  string  with which the name of the global
  variable starts.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.10 [33X[0;0YNamespaces for [5XGAP[105X[101X[1X packages[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YAs  mentioned  in  Section  [14X4.9[114X  above  all  global variables share a common
  namespace.  This  can  relatively easily lead to name clashes, in particular
  when  many  [5XGAP[105X packages are loaded at the same time. To give package code a
  way   to   have   a   package  local  namespace  without  breaking  backward
  compatibility  of  the  [5XGAP[105X  language,  the  following  simple rule has been
  devised:[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIf  in  package  code  a global variable that ends with an [21Xat[121X-character [10X@[110X is
  accessed  in  any  way, the name of the package is appended before accessing
  it.  Here,  [21Xpackage code[121X refers to everything which is read with [2XReadPackage[102X
  ([14X76.3-1[114X).  As  the  name  of  the  package  the  entry  [10XPackageName[110X  in  its
  [11XPackageInfo.g[111X  file  is  taken.  As  for  all identifiers, this name is case
  sensitive.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  example,  if  the  following is done in the code of a package with name
  [10XxYz[110X:[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xa@ := 12;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YThen  actually the global variable [10Xa@xYz[110X is assigned. Further accesses to [10Xa@[110X
  within  the  package code will all be redirected to [10Xa@xYz[110X. This includes all
  the  functions  described  in  Section  [14X4.9[114X  and  indeed  all  the functions
  described  Section  [14X79.17[114X  like  for example [2XDeclareCategory[102X ([14X79.17-1[114X). Note
  that  from  code in the same package it is still possible to access the same
  global variable via [10Xa@xYz[110X explicitly.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAll  other  code  outside the package as well as interactive user input that
  wants to refer to that variable [10Xa@xYz[110X must do so explicitly by using [10Xa@xYz[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YSince  in  earlier  releases  of  [5XGAP[105X  the  [21Xat[121X-character  [10X@[110X  was not a legal
  character  (without using backslashes), this small extension of the language
  does not break any old code.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.11 [33X[0;0YFunction Calls[133X[101X
  
  
  [1X4.11-1 [33X[0;0YFunction Call With Arguments[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xfunction-var[103X[10X( [[3Xarg-expr[103X[10X[, [3Xarg-expr[103X[10X, ...]] )[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  function  call has the effect of calling the function [3Xfunction-var[103X. The
  precise semantics are as follows.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFirst  [5XGAP[105X  evaluates  the [3Xfunction-var[103X. Usually [3Xfunction-var[103X is a variable,
  and  [5XGAP[105X  does  nothing  more  than taking the value of this variable. It is
  allowed  though  that  [3Xfunction-var[103X  is a more complex expression, such as a
  reference to an element of a list (see Chapter [14X21[114X) [10X[3Xlist-var[103X[10X[[3Xint-expr[103X[10X][110X, or to
  a  component  of a record (see Chapter [14X29[114X) [10X[3Xrecord-var[103X[10X.[3Xident[103X[10X[110X. In any case [5XGAP[105X
  tests whether the value is a function. If it is not, [5XGAP[105X signals an error.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNext  [5XGAP[105X  checks  that the number of actual arguments [3Xarg-expr[103Xs agrees with
  the  number of [13Xformal arguments[113X as given in the function definition. If they
  do  not  agree  [5XGAP[105X signals an error. An exception is the case when there is
  exactly  one  formal argument with the name [10Xarg[110X, in which case any number of
  actual arguments is allowed (see [14X4.23[114X for examples).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNow  [5XGAP[105X  allocates for each formal argument and for each [13Xformal local[113X (that
  is,  the identifiers in the [9Xlocal[109X declaration) a new variable. Remember that
  a  variable  is a location in a [5XGAP[105X program that points to a value. Thus for
  each formal argument and for each formal local such a location is allocated.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNext  the  arguments [3Xarg-expr[103Xs are evaluated, and the values are assigned to
  the newly created variables corresponding to the formal arguments. Of course
  the  first  value is assigned to the new variable corresponding to the first
  formal   argument,  the  second  value  is  assigned  to  the  new  variable
  corresponding  to  the  second formal argument, and so on. However, [5XGAP[105X does
  not make any guarantee about the order in which the arguments are evaluated.
  They might be evaluated left to right, right to left, or in any other order,
  but  each  argument  is  evaluated  once.  An  exception again occurs if the
  function  has  only  one formal argument with the name [10Xarg[110X. In this case the
  values  of  all  the  actual arguments are stored in a list and this list is
  assigned to the new variable corresponding to the formal argument [10Xarg[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe new variables corresponding to the formal locals are initially not bound
  to  any  value.  So  trying to evaluate those variables before something has
  been assigned to them will signal an error.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNow  the  body  of  the  function, which is a statement, is executed. If the
  identifier  of  one  of the formal arguments or formal locals appears in the
  body  of  the  function it refers to the new variable that was allocated for
  this  formal  argument  or  formal local, and evaluates to the value of this
  variable.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIf  during the execution of the body of the function a [9Xreturn[109X statement with
  an  expression  (see  [14X4.24[114X) is executed, execution of the body is terminated
  and  the  value  of  the function call is the value of the expression of the
  [9Xreturn[109X.  If  during  the execution of the body a [9Xreturn[109X statement without an
  expression is executed, execution of the body is terminated and the function
  call  does  not produce a value, in which case we call this call a procedure
  call (see [14X4.16[114X). If the execution of the body completes without execution of
  a  [9Xreturn[109X statement, the function call again produces no value, and again we
  talk about a procedure call.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XFibonacci( 11 );[127X[104X
    [4X[28X89[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  above  example  shows  a  call  to the function [2XFibonacci[102X ([14X16.3-1[114X) with
  actual  argument  [10X11[110X,  the  following  one  shows  a  call  to the operation
  [2XRightCosets[102X  ([14X39.7-2[114X)  where  the second actual argument is another function
  call.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XRightCosets( G, Intersection( U, V ) );;[127X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  
  [1X4.11-2 [33X[0;0YFunction Call With Options[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xfunction-var[103X[10X(  [3Xarg-expr[103X[10X[,  [3Xarg-expr[103X[10X,  ...][  :  [ [3Xoption-expr[103X[10X [,[3Xoption-expr[103X[10X,
  ....]]])[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAs well as passing arguments to a function, providing the mathematical input
  to its calculation, it is sometimes useful to supply [21Xhints[121X suggesting to [5XGAP[105X
  how  the  desired result may be computed more quickly, or specifying a level
  of tolerance for random errors in a Monte Carlo algorithm.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YSuch  hints  may  be  supplied  to  a  function-call  [13Xand  to all subsidiary
  functions  called  from  that  call[113X using the options mechanism. Options are
  separated  from  the  actual  arguments  by a colon [10X:[110X and have much the same
  syntax  as  the components of a record expression. The one exception to this
  is that a component name may appear without a value, in which case the value
  [9Xtrue[109X is silently inserted.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe following example shows a call to [2XSize[102X ([14X30.4-6[114X) passing the options [10Xhard[110X
  (with the value [9Xtrue[109X) and [10Xtcselection[110X (with the string [10X"external"[110X as value).[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XSize( fpgrp : hard, tcselection := "external" );[127X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YOptions  supplied  with function calls in this way are passed down using the
  global  options  stack  described  in  chapter  [14X8[114X, so that the call above is
  exactly equivalent to[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XPushOptions( rec( hard := true, tcselection := "external") );[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XSize( fpgrp );[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XPopOptions( );[127X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[13XNote[113X  that any option may be passed with any function, whether or not it has
  any  actual  meaning  for  that  function, or any function called by it. The
  system provides no safeguard against misspelled option names.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.12 [33X[0;0YComparisons[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xleft-expr[103X[10X = [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xleft-expr[103X[10X <> [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  operator [10X=[110X tests for equality of its two operands and evaluates to [9Xtrue[109X
  if  they  are equal and to [9Xfalse[109X otherwise. Likewise [10X<>[110X tests for inequality
  of  its two operands. For each type of objects the definition of equality is
  given  in  the  respective chapter. Objects in different families (see [14X13.1[114X)
  are  never  equal, i.e., [10X=[110X evaluates in this case to [9Xfalse[109X, and [10X<>[110X evaluates
  to [9Xtrue[109X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xleft-expr[103X[10X < [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xleft-expr[103X[10X > [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xleft-expr[103X[10X <= [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xleft-expr[103X[10X >= [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X<[110X  denotes  less than, [10X<=[110X less than or equal, [10X>[110X greater than, and [10X>=[110X greater
  than  or  equal of its two operands. For each kind of objects the definition
  of the ordering is given in the respective chapter.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  that  [10X<[110X  implements a [13Xtotal ordering[113X of objects (which can be used for
  example  to  sort  a  list  of elements). Therefore in general [10X<[110X will not be
  compatible  with  any inclusion relation (which can be tested using [2XIsSubset[102X
  ([14X30.5-1[114X)). (For example, it is possible to compare permutation groups with [10X<[110X
  in  a  total  ordering  of  all permutation groups, but this ordering is not
  compatible with the relation of being a subgroup.)[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YOnly  for  the  following  kinds of objects, an ordering via [10X<[110X of objects in
  [13Xdifferent[113X  families  (see [14X13.1[114X) is supported. Rationals (see [2XIsRat[102X ([14X17.2-1[114X))
  are  smallest, next are cyclotomics (see [2XIsCyclotomic[102X ([14X18.1-3[114X)), followed by
  finite  field  elements  (see [2XIsFFE[102X  ([14X59.1-1[114X));  finite  field  elements  in
  different  characteristics  are compared via their characteristics, next are
  permutations  (see [2XIsPerm[102X  ([14X42.1-1[114X)),  followed  by the boolean values [9Xtrue[109X,
  [9Xfalse[109X,   and  [9Xfail[109X  (see [2XIsBool[102X  ([14X20.1-1[114X)),  characters  (such  as  [10X{[110X}a{'}',
  see [2XIsChar[102X ([14X27.1-1[114X)), and lists (see [2XIsList[102X ([14X21.1-1[114X)) are largest; note that
  two  lists  can  be  compared with [10X<[110X if and only if their elements are again
  objects that can be compared with [10X<[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  other  objects,  [5XGAP[105X does [13Xnot[113X provide an ordering via [10X<[110X. The reason for
  this  is  that a total ordering of all [5XGAP[105X objects would be hard to maintain
  when  new  kinds  of  objects  are  introduced, and such a total ordering is
  hardly used in its full generality.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YHowever,  for  objects  in  the filters listed above, the ordering via [10X<[110X has
  turned  out  to be useful. For example, one can form [13Xsorted lists[113X containing
  integers  and  nested  lists  of  integers,  and  then  search in them using
  [10XPositionSorted[110X (see [14X21.16[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YOf course it would in principle be possible to define an ordering via [10X<[110X also
  for  certain  other  objects,  by  installing  appropriate  methods  for the
  operation  [10X\<[110X.  But  this may lead to problems at least as soon as one loads
  [5XGAP[105X  code  in  which  the  same  is  done,  under the assumption that one is
  completely  free to define an ordering via [10X<[110X for other objects than the ones
  for which the [21Xofficial[121X [5XGAP[105X provides already an ordering via [10X<[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YComparison   operators,  including  the  operator  [9Xin[109X  (see [14X21.8[114X),  are  not
  associative,  Hence  it is not allowed to write [10X[3Xa[103X[10X = [3Xb[103X[10X <> [3Xc[103X[10X = [3Xd[103X[10X[110X, you must use
  [10X([3Xa[103X[10X  = [3Xb[103X[10X) <> ([3Xc[103X[10X = [3Xd[103X[10X)[110X instead. The comparison operators have higher precedence
  than  the  logical  operators  (see [14X20.4[114X),  but  lower  precedence  than the
  arithmetic  operators  (see [14X4.13[114X).  Thus,  for  instance, [10X[3Xa[103X[10X * [3Xb[103X[10X = [3Xc[103X[10X and [3Xd[103X[10X[110X is
  interpreted as [10X(([3Xa[103X[10X * [3Xb[103X[10X) = [3Xc[103X[10X) and [3Xd[103X[10X)[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  following  example  shows  a  comparison  where  the left operand is an
  expression.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27X2 * 2 + 9 = Fibonacci(7);[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xtrue[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor the underlying operations of the operators introduced above, see [14X31.11[114X.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.13 [33X[0;0YArithmetic Operators[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X+ [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X- [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xleft-expr[103X[10X + [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xleft-expr[103X[10X - [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xleft-expr[103X[10X * [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xleft-expr[103X[10X / [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xleft-expr[103X[10X mod [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xleft-expr[103X[10X ^ [3Xright-expr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  arithmetic  operators  are  [10X+[110X,  [10X-[110X,  [10X*[110X,  [10X/[110X,  [9Xmod[109X,  and  [10X^[110X.  The meanings
  (semantics) of those operators generally depend on the types of the operands
  involved, and they are defined in the various chapters describing the types.
  However basically the meanings are as follows.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xa[103X[10X + [3Xb[103X[10X[110X denotes the addition of additive elements [3Xa[103X and [3Xb[103X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xa[103X[10X - [3Xb[103X[10X[110X denotes the addition of [3Xa[103X and the additive inverse of [3Xb[103X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xa[103X[10X * [3Xb[103X[10X[110X denotes the multiplication of multiplicative elements [3Xa[103X and [3Xb[103X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xa[103X[10X / [3Xb[103X[10X[110X denotes the multiplication of [3Xa[103X with the multiplicative inverse of [3Xb[103X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xa[103X[10X  mod  [3Xb[103X[10X[110X,  for  integer or rational left operand [3Xa[103X and for non-zero integer
  right  operand [3Xb[103X, is defined as follows. If [3Xa[103X and [3Xb[103X are both integers, [10X[3Xa[103X[10X mod
  [3Xb[103X[10X[110X  is the integer [3Xr[103X in the integer range [10X0 .. |[3Xb[103X[10X| - 1[110X satisfying [10X[3Xa[103X[10X = [3Xr[103X[10X + [3Xb[103X[10X[3Xq[103X[10X[110X,
  for  some integer [3Xq[103X (where the operations occurring have their usual meaning
  over the integers, of course).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIf [3Xa[103X is a rational number and [3Xb[103X is a non-zero integer, and [10X[3Xa[103X[10X = [3Xm[103X[10X / [3Xn[103X[10X[110X where [3Xm[103X
  and [3Xn[103X are coprime integers with [3Xn[103X positive, then [10X[3Xa[103X[10X mod [3Xb[103X[10X[110X is the integer [3Xr[103X in
  the  integer range [10X0 .. |[3Xb[103X[10X| - 1[110X such that [3Xm[103X is congruent to [10X[3Xr[103X[10X[3Xn[103X[10X[110X modulo [3Xb[103X, and
  [3Xr[103X is called the [21Xmodular remainder[121X of [3Xa[103X modulo [3Xb[103X. Also, [10X1 / [3Xn[103X[10X mod [3Xb[103X[10X[110X is called
  the [21Xmodular inverse[121X of [3Xn[103X modulo [3Xb[103X. (A pair of integers is said to be [13Xcoprime[113X
  (or [13Xrelatively prime[113X) if their greatest common divisor is 1.)[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YWith the above definition, [10X4 / 6 mod 32[110X equals [10X2 / 3 mod 32[110X and hence exists
  (and is equal to 22), despite the fact that 6 has no inverse modulo 32.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[13XNote:[113X For rational [3Xa[103X, [10X[3Xa[103X[10X mod [3Xb[103X[10X[110X could have been defined to be the non-negative
  rational  [3Xc[103X  less  than [10X|[3Xb[103X[10X|[110X such that [10X[3Xa[103X[10X - [3Xc[103X[10X[110X is a multiple of [3Xb[103X. However this
  definition is seldom useful and [13Xnot[113X the one chosen for [5XGAP[105X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X+[110X  and  [10X-[110X  can also be used as unary operations. The unary [10X+[110X is ignored. The
  unary [10X-[110X returns the additive inverse of its operand; over the integers it is
  equivalent to multiplication by [10X-1[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X^[110X  denotes  powering  of a multiplicative element if the right operand is an
  integer, and is also used to denote the action of a group element on a point
  of a set if the right operand is a group element.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe [13Xprecedence[113X of those operators is as follows. The powering operator [10X^[110X has
  the  highest  precedence, followed by the unary operators [10X+[110X and [10X-[110X, which are
  followed  by  the  multiplicative  operators [10X*[110X, [10X/[110X, and [9Xmod[109X, and the additive
  binary  operators  [10X+[110X  and  [10X-[110X have the lowest precedence. That means that the
  expression  [10X-2  ^  -2 * 3 + 1[110X is interpreted as [10X(-(2 ^ (-2)) * 3) + 1[110X. If in
  doubt use parentheses to clarify your intention.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  [13Xassociativity[113X  of  the  arithmetic  operators  is  as follows. [10X^[110X is not
  associative,  i.e., it is invalid to write [10X2^3^4[110X, use parentheses to clarify
  whether  you  mean [10X(2^3)^4[110X or [10X2^(3^4)[110X. The unary operators [10X+[110X and [10X-[110X are right
  associative,  because  they are written to the left of their operands. [10X*[110X, [10X/[110X,
  [9Xmod[109X,  [10X+[110X,  and  [10X-[110X  are  all  left  associative, i.e., [10X1-2-3[110X is interpreted as
  [10X(1-2)-3[110X  not  as [10X1-(2-3)[110X. Again, if in doubt use parentheses to clarify your
  intentions.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe   arithmetic  operators  have  higher  precedence  than  the  comparison
  operators  (see [14X4.12[114X  and [14X30.6[114X)  and the logical operators (see [14X20.4[114X). Thus,
  for example, [10X[3Xa[103X[10X * [3Xb[103X[10X = [3Xc[103X[10X and [3Xd[103X[10X[110X is interpreted, [10X(([3Xa[103X[10X * [3Xb[103X[10X) = [3Xc[103X[10X) and [3Xd[103X[10X[110X.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27X2 * 2 + 9;  # a very simple arithmetic expression[127X[104X
    [4X[28X13[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  other  arithmetic  operations, and for the underlying operations of the
  operators introduced above, see [14X31.12[114X.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.14 [33X[0;0YStatements[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0YAssignments  (see  [14X4.15[114X),  Procedure  calls  (see  [14X4.16[114X), [9Xif[109X statements (see
  [14X4.17[114X), [9Xwhile[109X (see [14X4.18[114X), [9Xrepeat[109X (see [14X4.19[114X) and [9Xfor[109X loops (see [14X4.20[114X), and the
  [9Xreturn[109X  statement  (see  [14X4.24[114X)  are  called  [13Xstatements[113X. They can be entered
  interactively  or  be part of a function definition. Every statement must be
  terminated by a semicolon.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YStatements,  unlike  expressions,  have  no value. They are executed only to
  produce  an  effect. For example an assignment has the effect of assigning a
  value  to  a  variable,  a  [9Xfor[109X loop has the effect of executing a statement
  sequence for all elements in a list and so on. We will talk about [13Xevaluation[113X
  of   expressions  but  about  [13Xexecution[113X  of  statements  to  emphasize  this
  difference.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YUsing expressions as statements is treated as syntax error.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xi := 7;;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xif i <> 0 then k = 16/i; fi;[127X[104X
    [4X[28XSyntax error: := expected[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xif i <> 0 then k = 16/i; fi;[128X[104X
    [4X[28X                 ^[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27X[127X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YAs  you  can  see  from  the example this warning does in particular address
  those  users  who  are  used  to  languages  where  [10X=[110X  instead of [10X:=[110X denotes
  assignment.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YEmpty statements are permitted and have no effect.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA  sequence of one or more statements is a [13Xstatement sequence[113X, and may occur
  everywhere  instead of a single statement. Each construct is terminated by a
  keyword. The simplest statement sequence is a single semicolon, which can be
  used  as an empty statement sequence. In fact an empty statement sequence as
  in  [10Xfor  i  in [ 1 .. 2 ] do od[110X is also permitted and is silently translated
  into the sequence containing just a semicolon.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.15 [33X[0;0YAssignments[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xvar[103X[10X := [3Xexpr[103X[10X;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe [13Xassignment[113X has the effect of assigning the value of the expressions [3Xexpr[103X
  to the variable [3Xvar[103X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  variable  [3Xvar[103X  may  be  an  ordinary variable (see [14X4.8[114X), a list element
  selection  [10X[3Xlist-var[103X[10X[[3Xint-expr[103X[10X][110X  (see  [14X21.4[114X)  or  a record component selection
  [10X[3Xrecord-var[103X[10X.[3Xident[103X[10X[110X  (see [14X29.3[114X). Since a list element or a record component may
  itself  be  a  list  or  a record the left hand side of an assignment may be
  arbitrarily complex.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  that  variables  do not have a type. Thus any value may be assigned to
  any variable. For example a variable with an integer value may be assigned a
  permutation or a list or anything else.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xdata:= rec( numbers:= [ 1, 2, 3 ] );[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xrec( numbers := [ 1, 2, 3 ] )[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xdata.string:= "string";; data;[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xrec( numbers := [ 1, 2, 3 ], string := "string" )[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xdata.numbers[2]:= 4;; data;[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xrec( numbers := [ 1, 4, 3 ], string := "string" )[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YIf  the  expression [3Xexpr[103X is a function call then this function must return a
  value. If the function does not return a value an error is signalled and you
  enter  a  break  loop  (see [14X6.4[114X). As usual you can leave the break loop with
  [10Xquit;[110X.  If  you  enter  [10Xreturn  [3Xreturn-expr[103X[10X;[110X  the  value  of  the expression
  [3Xreturn-expr[103X  is  assigned to the variable, and execution continues after the
  assignment.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xf1:= function( x ) Print( "value: ", x, "\n" ); end;;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xf2:= function( x ) return f1( x ); end;;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xf2( 4 );[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xvalue: 4[128X[104X
    [4X[28XFunction Calls: <func> must return a value at[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xreturn f1( x );[128X[104X
    [4X[28X called from[128X[104X
    [4X[28X<function>( <arguments> ) called from read-eval-loop[128X[104X
    [4X[28XEntering break read-eval-print loop ...[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xyou can 'quit;' to quit to outer loop, or[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xyou can supply one by 'return <value>;' to continue[128X[104X
    [4X[26Xbrk>[126X [27Xreturn "hello";[127X[104X
    [4X[28X"hello"[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YIn the above example, the function [10Xf2[110X calls [10Xf1[110X with argument [10X4[110X, and since [10Xf1[110X
  does  not  return  a  value  (but only prints a line [21X[10Xvalue: ...[110X[121X), the [9Xreturn[109X
  statement  of  [10Xf2[110X  cannot  be  executed.  The  error message says that it is
  possible  to return an appropriate value, and the returned string [10X"hello"[110X is
  used by [10Xf2[110X instead of the missing return value of [10Xf1[110X.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.16 [33X[0;0YProcedure Calls[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xprocedure-var[103X[10X( [[3Xarg-expr[103X[10X [,[3Xarg-expr[103X[10X, ...]] );[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  [13Xprocedure call[113X has the effect of calling the procedure [3Xprocedure-var[103X. A
  procedure  call  is  done  exactly  like  a  function  call  (see [14X4.11[114X). The
  distinction  between  functions  and  procedures is only for the sake of the
  discussion, [5XGAP[105X does not distinguish between them. So we state the following
  conventions.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA  [13Xfunction[113X  does  return  a  value but does not produce a side effect. As a
  convention  the  name  of  a  function is a noun, denoting what the function
  returns, e.g., [10X"Length"[110X, [10X"Concatenation"[110X and [10X"Order"[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA  [13Xprocedure[113X  is  a  function that does not return a value but produces some
  effect. Procedures are called only for this effect. As a convention the name
  of  a  procedure is a verb, denoting what the procedure does, e.g., [10X"Print"[110X,
  [10X"Append"[110X and [10X"Sort"[110X.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XRead( "myfile.g" );   # a call to the procedure Read[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xl := [ 1, 2 ];;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XAppend( l, [3,4,5] );  # a call to the procedure Append[127X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YThere  are a few exceptions of [5XGAP[105X functions that do both return a value and
  produce  some  effect. An example is [2XSortex[102X ([14X21.18-3[114X) which sorts a list and
  returns the corresponding permutation of the entries.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.17 [33X[0;0YIf[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xif  [3Xbool-expr1[103X[10X  then  [3Xstatements1[103X[10X { elif [3Xbool-expr2[103X[10X then [3Xstatements2[103X[10X }[ else
  [3Xstatements3[103X[10X ] fi;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  [9Xif[109X statement allows one to execute statements depending on the value of
  some boolean expression. The execution is done as follows.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFirst  the  expression  [3Xbool-expr1[103X  following  the  [9Xif[109X  is  evaluated. If it
  evaluates to [9Xtrue[109X the statement sequence [3Xstatements1[103X after the first [9Xthen[109X is
  executed, and the execution of the [9Xif[109X statement is complete.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YOtherwise  the  expressions  [3Xbool-expr2[103X  following the [9Xelif[109X are evaluated in
  turn.  There  may be any number of [9Xelif[109X parts, possibly none at all. As soon
  as  an  expression  evaluates  to  [9Xtrue[109X the corresponding statement sequence
  [3Xstatements2[103X is executed and execution of the [9Xif[109X statement is complete.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIf the [9Xif[109X expression and all, if any, [9Xelif[109X expressions evaluate to [9Xfalse[109X and
  there is an [9Xelse[109X part, which is optional, its statement sequence [3Xstatements3[103X
  is  executed  and the execution of the [9Xif[109X statement is complete. If there is
  no  [9Xelse[109X  part  the [9Xif[109X statement is complete without executing any statement
  sequence.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YSince  the [9Xif[109X statement is terminated by the [9Xfi[109X keyword there is no question
  where an [9Xelse[109X part belongs, i.e., [5XGAP[105X has no [21Xdangling else[121X. In[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4Xif expr1 then if expr2 then stats1 else stats2 fi; fi;[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0Ythe [9Xelse[109X part belongs to the second [9Xif[109X statement, whereas in[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4Xif expr1 then if expr2 then stats1 fi; else stats2 fi;[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0Ythe [9Xelse[109X part belongs to the first [9Xif[109X statement.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YSince an [9Xif[109X statement is not an expression it is not possible to write[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4Xabs := if x > 0 then x; else -x; fi;[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0Ywhich  would,  even  if legal syntax, be meaningless, since the [9Xif[109X statement
  does not produce a value that could be assigned to [10Xabs[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIf  one of the expressions [3Xbool-expr1[103X, [3Xbool-expr2[103X is evaluated and its value
  is  neither  [9Xtrue[109X nor [9Xfalse[109X an error is signalled and a break loop (see [14X6.4[114X)
  is  entered.  As usual you can leave the break loop with [10Xquit;[110X. If you enter
  [10Xreturn  true;[110X,  execution of the [9Xif[109X statement continues as if the expression
  whose evaluation failed had evaluated to [9Xtrue[109X. Likewise, if you enter [10Xreturn
  false;[110X,  execution  of the [9Xif[109X statement continues as if the expression whose
  evaluation failed had evaluated to [9Xfalse[109X.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xi := 10;;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xif 0 < i then[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X   s := 1;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X elif i < 0 then[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X   s := -1;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X else[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X   s := 0;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X fi;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xs;  # the sign of i[127X[104X
    [4X[28X1[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  
  [1X4.18 [33X[0;0YWhile[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xwhile [3Xbool-expr[103X[10X do [3Xstatements[103X[10X od;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  [9Xwhile[109X  loop  executes  the  statement  sequence  [3Xstatements[103X  while  the
  condition [3Xbool-expr[103X evaluates to [9Xtrue[109X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFirst  [3Xbool-expr[103X  is  evaluated.  If  it evaluates to [9Xfalse[109X execution of the
  [9Xwhile[109X loop terminates and the statement immediately following the [9Xwhile[109X loop
  is  executed  next.  Otherwise  if  it  evaluates to [9Xtrue[109X the [3Xstatements[103X are
  executed and the whole process begins again.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  difference  between the [9Xwhile[109X loop and the [9Xrepeat[109X [9Xuntil[109X loop (see [14X4.19[114X)
  is  that the [3Xstatements[103X in the [9Xrepeat[109X [9Xuntil[109X loop are executed at least once,
  while  the [3Xstatements[103X in the [9Xwhile[109X loop are not executed at all if [3Xbool-expr[103X
  is [9Xfalse[109X at the first iteration.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIf  [3Xbool-expr[103X does not evaluate to [9Xtrue[109X or [9Xfalse[109X an error is signalled and a
  break  loop (see [14X6.4[114X) is entered. As usual you can leave the break loop with
  [10Xquit;[110X.  If  you  enter  [10Xreturn  false;[110X,  execution  continues  with the next
  statement  immediately  following the [9Xwhile[109X loop. If you enter [10Xreturn true;[110X,
  execution  continues  at  [3Xstatements[103X,  after  which  the  next evaluation of
  [3Xbool-expr[103X may cause another error.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  following example shows a [9Xwhile[109X loop that sums up the squares [22X1^2, 2^2,
  ...[122X until the sum exceeds [22X200[122X.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xi := 0;; s := 0;;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xwhile s <= 200 do[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X   i := i + 1; s := s + i^2;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X od;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xs;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X204[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YA [9Xwhile[109X loop may be left prematurely using [9Xbreak[109X, see [14X4.21[114X.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.19 [33X[0;0YRepeat[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xrepeat [3Xstatements[103X[10X until [3Xbool-expr[103X[10X;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  [9Xrepeat[109X  loop  executes  the  statement  sequence  [3Xstatements[103X  until the
  condition [3Xbool-expr[103X evaluates to [9Xtrue[109X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFirst  [3Xstatements[103X are executed. Then [3Xbool-expr[103X is evaluated. If it evaluates
  to  [9Xtrue[109X  the [9Xrepeat[109X loop terminates and the statement immediately following
  the  [9Xrepeat[109X  loop  is  executed next. Otherwise if it evaluates to [9Xfalse[109X the
  whole process begins again with the execution of the [3Xstatements[103X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  difference  between the [9Xwhile[109X loop (see [14X4.18[114X) and the [9Xrepeat[109X [9Xuntil[109X loop
  is  that the [3Xstatements[103X in the [9Xrepeat[109X [9Xuntil[109X loop are executed at least once,
  while  the [3Xstatements[103X in the [9Xwhile[109X loop are not executed at all if [3Xbool-expr[103X
  is [9Xfalse[109X at the first iteration.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIf  [3Xbool-expr[103X does not evaluate to [9Xtrue[109X or [9Xfalse[109X an error is signalled and a
  break  loop (see [14X6.4[114X) is entered. As usual you can leave the break loop with
  [10Xquit;[110X.  If  you  enter  [10Xreturn  true;[110X,  execution  continues  with  the next
  statement immediately following the [9Xrepeat[109X loop. If you enter [10Xreturn false;[110X,
  execution  continues  at  [3Xstatements[103X,  after  which  the  next evaluation of
  [3Xbool-expr[103X may cause another error.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  [9Xrepeat[109X  loop in the following example has the same purpose as the [9Xwhile[109X
  loop  in  the  preceding example, namely to sum up the squares [22X1^2, 2^2, ...[122X
  until the sum exceeds [22X200[122X.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xi := 0;; s := 0;;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xrepeat[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X   i := i + 1; s := s + i^2;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X until s > 200;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xs;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X204[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YA [9Xrepeat[109X loop may be left prematurely using [9Xbreak[109X, see [14X4.21[114X.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.20 [33X[0;0YFor[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xfor [3Xsimple-var[103X[10X in [3Xlist-expr[103X[10X do [3Xstatements[103X[10X od;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe [9Xfor[109X loop executes the statement sequence [3Xstatements[103X for every element of
  the list [3Xlist-expr[103X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe statement sequence [3Xstatements[103X is first executed with [3Xsimple-var[103X bound to
  the  first  element of the list [3Xlist-expr[103X, then with [3Xsimple-var[103X bound to the
  second element of [3Xlist-expr[103X and so on. [3Xsimple-var[103X must be a simple variable,
  it  must  not  be  a  list  element selection [10X[3Xlist-var[103X[10X[[3Xint-expr[103X[10X][110X or a record
  component selection [10X[3Xrecord-var[103X[10X.[3Xident[103X[10X[110X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  execution  of  the  [9Xfor[109X  loop  over a list is exactly equivalent to the
  following [9Xwhile[109X loop.[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4Xloop_list := list;[104X
    [4Xloop_index := 1;[104X
    [4Xwhile loop_index <= Length(loop_list) do[104X
    [4X  variable := loop_list[loop_index];[104X
    [4X  statements[104X
    [4X  loop_index := loop_index + 1;[104X
    [4Xod;[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0Ywith the exception that [21Xloop_list[121X and [21Xloop_index[121X are different variables for
  each [9Xfor[109X loop, i.e., these variables of different [9Xfor[109X loops do not interfere
  with each other.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe list [3Xlist-expr[103X is very often a range (see [14X21.22[114X).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xfor [3Xvariable[103X[10X in [[3Xfrom[103X[10X..[3Xto[103X[10X] do [3Xstatements[103X[10X od;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Ycorresponds to the more common[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xfor [3Xvariable[103X[10X from [3Xfrom[103X[10X to [3Xto[103X[10X do [3Xstatements[103X[10X od;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Yin other programming languages.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xs := 0;;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xfor i in [1..100] do[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X   s := s + i;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27Xod;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xs;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X5050[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  in  the following example how the modification of the [13Xlist[113X in the loop
  body causes the loop body also to be executed for the new values.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xl := [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ];;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xfor i in l do[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X   Print( i, " " );[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X   if i mod 2 = 0 then Add( l, 3 * i / 2 ); fi;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27Xod; Print( "\n" );[127X[104X
    [4X[28X1 2 3 4 5 6 3 6 9 9 [128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xl;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 3, 6, 9, 9 ][128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  in  the  following  example that the modification of the [13Xvariable[113X that
  holds the list has no influence on the loop.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xl := [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ];;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xfor i in l do[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X   Print( i, " " );[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X   l := [];[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27Xod; Print( "\n" );[127X[104X
    [4X[28X1 2 3 4 5 6 [128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xl;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[  ][128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xfor [3Xvariable[103X[10X in [3Xiterator[103X[10X do [3Xstatements[103X[10X od;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIt  is  also possible to have a [9Xfor[109X-loop run over an iterator (see [14X30.8[114X). In
  this case the [9Xfor[109X-loop is equivalent to[133X
  
  [4X[32X[104X
    [4Xwhile not IsDoneIterator(iterator) do[104X
    [4X  variable := NextIterator(iterator)[104X
    [4X  statements[104X
    [4Xod;[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xfor [3Xvariable[103X[10X in [3Xobject[103X[10X do [3Xstatements[103X[10X od;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFinally, if an object [3Xobject[103X which is not a list or an iterator appears in a
  [9Xfor[109X-loop,   then   [5XGAP[105X   will   attempt   to   evaluate  the  function  call
  [10XIterator([3Xobject[103X[10X)[110X.  If  this is successful then the loop is taken to run over
  the iterator returned.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xg := Group((1,2,3,4,5),(1,2)(3,4)(5,6));[127X[104X
    [4X[28XGroup([ (1,2,3,4,5), (1,2)(3,4)(5,6) ])[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xcount := 0;; sumord := 0;;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xfor x in g do[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27Xcount := count + 1; sumord := sumord + Order(x); od;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xcount;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X120[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xsumord;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X471[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe effect of[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xfor [3Xvariable[103X[10X in [3Xdomain[103X[10X do[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Yshould thus normally be the same as[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xfor [3Xvariable[103X[10X in AsList([3Xdomain[103X[10X) do[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Ybut  may  use  much less storage, as the iterator may be more compact than a
  list of all the elements.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YSee [14X30.8[114X for details about iterators.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA  [9Xfor[109X  loop  may  be  left prematurely using [9Xbreak[109X, see [14X4.21[114X. This combines
  especially  well with a loop over an iterator, as a way of searching through
  a domain for an element with some useful property.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.21 [33X[0;0YBreak[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xbreak;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  statement  [10Xbreak;[110X  causes  an  immediate  exit  from the innermost loop
  enclosing it.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xg := Group((1,2,3,4,5),(1,2)(3,4)(5,6));[127X[104X
    [4X[28XGroup([ (1,2,3,4,5), (1,2)(3,4)(5,6) ])[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xfor x in g do[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27Xif Order(x) = 3 then[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27Xbreak;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27Xfi; od;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xx;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X(1,4,3)(2,6,5)[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YIt is an error to use this statement other than inside a loop.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xbreak;[127X[104X
    [4X[28XError, A break statement can only appear inside a loop[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xnot in any function[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  
  [1X4.22 [33X[0;0YContinue[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xcontinue;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  statement  [10Xcontinue;[110X  causes  the  rest of the current iteration of the
  innermost loop enclosing it to be skipped.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xg := Group((1,2,3),(1,2));[127X[104X
    [4X[28XGroup([ (1,2,3), (1,2) ])[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xfor x in g do[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27Xif Order(x) = 3 then[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27Xcontinue;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27Xfi; Print(x,"\n"); od;[127X[104X
    [4X[28X()[128X[104X
    [4X[28X(2,3)[128X[104X
    [4X[28X(1,3)[128X[104X
    [4X[28X(1,2)[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YIt is an error to use this statement other than inside a loop.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xcontinue;[127X[104X
    [4X[28XError, A continue statement can only appear inside a loop[128X[104X
    [4X[28Xnot in any function[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  
  [1X4.23 [33X[0;0YFunction[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xfunction( [ [3Xarg-ident[103X[10X {, [3Xarg-ident[103X[10X} ] )[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X  [local [3Xloc-ident[103X[10X {, [3Xloc-ident[103X[10X} ; ][110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X  [3Xstatements[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xend[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YA function is in fact a literal and not a statement. Such a function literal
  can  be  assigned  to a variable or to a list element or a record component.
  Later this function can be called as described in [14X4.11[114X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  following  is  an example of a function definition. It is a function to
  compute values of the Fibonacci sequence (see [2XFibonacci[102X ([14X16.3-1[114X)).[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xfib := function ( n )[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    local f1, f2, f3, i;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    f1 := 1; f2 := 1;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    for i in [3..n] do[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      f3 := f1 + f2;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      f1 := f2;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      f2 := f3;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    od;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    return f2;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X  end;;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XList( [1..10], fib );[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ][128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YBecause  for  each  of  the  formal  arguments [3Xarg-ident[103X and for each of the
  formal  locals  [3Xloc-ident[103X  a  new variable is allocated when the function is
  called  (see  [14X4.11[114X),  it  is  possible that a function calls itself. This is
  usually  called  [13Xrecursion[113X.  The  following  is  a  recursive  function that
  computes values of the Fibonacci sequence.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xfib := function ( n )[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    if n < 3 then[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      return 1;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    else[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2);[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    fi;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X  end;;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XList( [1..10], fib );[127X[104X
    [4X[28X[ 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ][128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  that the recursive version needs [10X2 * fib([3Xn[103X[10X)-1[110X steps to compute [10Xfib([3Xn[103X[10X)[110X,
  while  the  iterative  version  of  [10Xfib[110X  needs  only [10X[3Xn[103X[10X-2[110X steps. Both are not
  optimal  however,  the  library function [2XFibonacci[102X ([14X16.3-1[114X) only needs about
  [10XLog([3Xn[103X[10X)[110X steps.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAs  noted in Section [14X4.11[114X, the case where a function is defined with exactly
  one  formal  argument  with  the  name [10Xarg[110X, is special. It provides a way of
  defining  a  function with a variable number of arguments; the values of all
  the  actual  arguments are stored in a list and this list is assigned to the
  new variable corresponding to the formal argument [10Xarg[110X. There are two typical
  scenarios  for  wanting  such  a  possibility: having optional arguments and
  having any number of arguments.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  following  example  shows  one way that the function [2XPosition[102X ([14X21.16-1[114X)
  might be encoded and demonstrates the [21Xoptional argument[121X scenario.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xposition := function ( arg )    [127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    local list, obj, pos;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    list := arg[1];[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    obj  := arg[2];[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    if 2 = Length(arg) then[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      pos := 0;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    else[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      pos := arg[3];[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    fi;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    repeat[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      pos := pos + 1;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      if pos > Length(list) then[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X        return fail;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      fi;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    until list[pos] = obj;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    return pos;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X   end;[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xfunction( arg ) ... end[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xposition([1, 4, 2], 4);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X2[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xposition([1, 4, 2], 3);[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xfail[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xposition([1, 4, 2], 4, 2);[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xfail[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe following example demonstrates the [21Xany number of arguments[121X scenario.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xsum := function ( arg )[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    local total, x;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    total := 0;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    for x in arg do[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      total := total + x;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    od;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    return total;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X   end;[127X[104X
    [4X[28Xfunction( arg ) ... end[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xsum(1, 2, 3);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X6[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xsum(1, 2, 3, 4);[127X[104X
    [4X[28X10[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27Xsum();[127X[104X
    [4X[28X0[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  user  should  compare  the  above  with the [5XGAP[105X function [2XSum[102X ([14X21.20-26[114X)
  which,  for  example,  may  take  a  list argument and optionally an initial
  element (which zero should the sum of an empty list return?).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YNote  that  if  a  function  [3Xf[103X  is  defined  as above with the single formal
  argument      [10Xarg[110X     then     [10XNumberArgumentsFunction([3Xf[103X[10X)[110X     returns     [22X-1[122X
  (see [2XNumberArgumentsFunction[102X ([14X5.1-2[114X)).[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe  argument  [10Xarg[110X  when used as the single argument name of some function [3Xf[103X
  tells  [5XGAP[105X  that  when it encounters [3Xf[103X that it should form a list out of the
  arguments  of [3Xf[103X. What if one wishes to do the [21Xopposite[121X: tell [5XGAP[105X that a list
  should  be  [21Xunwrapped[121X  and  passed  as  several arguments to a function. The
  function [2XCallFuncList[102X ([14X5.2-1[114X) is provided for this purpose.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YAlso see Chapter [14X5[114X.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10X[3Xarg-ident[103X[10X -> [3Xexpr[103X[10X[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThis is a shorthand for[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xfunction ( [3Xarg-ident[103X[10X ) return [3Xexpr[103X[10X; end.[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[3Xarg-ident[103X  must  be  a  single identifier, i.e., it is not possible to write
  functions  of several arguments this way. Also [10Xarg[110X is not treated specially,
  so  it  is also impossible to write functions that take a variable number of
  arguments this way.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YThe following is an example of a typical use of such a function[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XSum( List( [1..100], x -> x^2 ) );[127X[104X
    [4X[28X338350[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YWhen  the definition of a function [3Xfun1[103X is evaluated inside another function
  [3Xfun2[103X,  [5XGAP[105X  binds  all  the  identifiers  inside  the function [3Xfun1[103X that are
  identifiers of an argument or a local of [3Xfun2[103X to the corresponding variable.
  This  set  of  bindings is called the environment of the function [3Xfun1[103X. When
  [3Xfun1[103X  is  called,  its  body  is executed in this environment. The following
  implementation  of  a  simple stack uses this. Values can be pushed onto the
  stack and then later be popped off again. The interesting thing here is that
  the  functions [10Xpush[110X and [10Xpop[110X in the record returned by [10XStack[110X access the local
  variable  [10Xstack[110X  of  [10XStack[110X.  When  [10XStack[110X  is  called, a new variable for the
  identifier  [10Xstack[110X  is created. When the function definitions of [10Xpush[110X and [10Xpop[110X
  are then evaluated (as part of the [9Xreturn[109X statement) each reference to [10Xstack[110X
  is  bound to this new variable. Note also that the two stacks [10XA[110X and [10XB[110X do not
  interfere, because each call of [10XStack[110X creates a new variable for [10Xstack[110X.[133X
  
  [4X[32X  Example  [32X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XStack := function ()[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    local  stack;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    stack := [];[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    return rec([127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      push := function ( value )[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X        Add( stack, value );[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      end,[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      pop := function ()[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X        local  value;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X        value := stack[Length(stack)];[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X        Unbind( stack[Length(stack)] );[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X        return value;[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X      end[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X    );[127X[104X
    [4X[25X>[125X [27X end;;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XA := Stack();;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XB := Stack();;[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XA.push( 1 ); A.push( 2 ); A.push( 3 );[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XB.push( 4 ); B.push( 5 ); B.push( 6 );[127X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XA.pop(); A.pop(); A.pop();[127X[104X
    [4X[28X3[128X[104X
    [4X[28X2[128X[104X
    [4X[28X1[128X[104X
    [4X[25Xgap>[125X [27XB.pop(); B.pop(); B.pop();[127X[104X
    [4X[28X6[128X[104X
    [4X[28X5[128X[104X
    [4X[28X4[128X[104X
  [4X[32X[104X
  
  [33X[0;0YThis  feature  should be used rarely, since its implementation in [5XGAP[105X is not
  very efficient.[133X
  
  
  [1X4.24 [33X[0;0YReturn (With or without Value)[133X[101X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xreturn;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIn  this  form  [9Xreturn[109X terminates the call of the innermost function that is
  currently  executing,  and control returns to the calling function. An error
  is  signalled if no function is currently executing. No value is returned by
  the function.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0Y[10Xreturn [3Xexpr[103X[10X;[110X[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YIn  this  form  [9Xreturn[109X terminates the call of the innermost function that is
  currently  executing,  and returns the value of the expression [3Xexpr[103X. Control
  returns  to  the  calling  function. An error is signalled if no function is
  currently executing.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YBoth  statements  can also be used in break loops (see [14X6.4[114X). [10Xreturn;[110X has the
  effect  that  the computation continues where it was interrupted by an error
  or  the  user hitting [12XCtrl-C[112X. [10Xreturn [3Xexpr[103X[10X;[110X can be used to continue execution
  after  an  error. What happens with the value [3Xexpr[103X depends on the particular
  error.[133X
  
  [33X[0;0YFor  examples  of  [9Xreturn[109X  statements,  see  the  functions [10Xfib[110X and [10XStack[110X in
  Section [14X4.23[114X.[133X
  
